The Qualitative Characteristics of Relevance and Reliability Essay

The Qualitative Characteristics of Relevance and Reliability - Essay Example IASB has set standards for financial reporting which ensure that the reporting is done according to the set principles by all the companies. This helps the users of financial statements in making crucial economic decisions as there is no ambiguity due to different accounting styles. The standards ensure that a company provides all the relevant information that influences the financial needs of the users. There are specific areas that are not allowed to be left untouched. There is a possibility that some users require non-financial information about a company which is not available in its financial statements. There are a variety of users and their requirements are also different. Financial statements may be used by the employees of a company to know about their chances of obtaining a bonus. A cash flow statement of the year describes the liquidity of the company. Comparisons of statements of affairs of a year with those of preceding years help in evaluating the performance of the com pany. ... These are understandability, relevance, reliability and comparability (Para 24). Understandability and comparability can be discussed in the context of relevance and reliability as they cannot be separated from each other. According to Para 25, the information that is provided in the financial statements must be readily understandable by the users who have reasonable knowledge of business, accounting and economic activities and a willingness to study the financial statements. If the information is not understandable, it might not be reliable for the users because they would be reluctant to take decisions on the basis of such information. However, some information of complex nature has to be included in the financial statements to ensure that relevant information is available. Such information cannot be discarded merely due to the fact that it is difficult to understand. Para 26 of the Framework explains that information is relevant when it influences the economic decisions of users b y helping them in evaluating past, present or future events (predictive role) or by confirming, or correcting, their past evaluations (confirmatory role). The predictive and confirmatory roles of information are interrelated. For instance, a user may take a decision on the basis of information regarding the current level and structure of asset holdings of a company. Here, this information would have predictive role. But the similar information might also prove to be the confirmation of previous predictions made by the similar or different users (Para 27). The predictive ability of information does not mean that it gives clear forecasts; it gives relevant and reliable information so that the

Organisational and strategic management project Essay

Organisational and strategic management project - Essay Example 4 1.3 Analysis of Factors Affecting Strategic Plan†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 7 2.1 Strategic tools to audit process............................................................................ 8 2.2 Review of stakeholders and their influence........................................................ 9 2.3 Analysis and evaluation of strategic position...................................................... 9 3.1 Alternative strategic options................................................................................. 10 3.2 Justification of Strategic Options for Revised Strategic Position†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...... 11 References THE ACQUISITION OF A COMPETING BUSINESS A. Background This strategic management project identifies the strategies, organisational restructuring, auditing practices and potential strategic alternatives required to acquire a competing business in the airline industry. This is industry is con sidered an oligopoly, in which there are few firms, significant dependency on marketing to achieve competitive advantage, and significant rivalry between firms in terms of pricing and service delivery processes (Javanmard 2009; Boyes and Melvin 2006). In order to maximise competitive position, acquisition of existing companies on the market reduces risks to the business and further provides for consolidation of existing processes and services for cost recognition and value chain efficiency. In order to make an airline acquisition successful, the business must identify its key stakeholders, determine the specific aims and objectives for the long-run plan, establish a quality control and evaluation system post-acquisition, and analyse the entire value chain related to operations, supply chain, information technology and human resources. A well-constructed strategic plan includes all dimensions of business processes, systems and culture that will impact the potential synergies achieved through acquisition such as cost, efficiency and productivity. The report highlights all dimensions of a strategic acquisition of a competing airline company in the oligopolistic market with an emphasis on evaluation of strategic plan. 1.1 Current strategic aims and objectives The business acquiring a competing firm is a low-cost carrier with a no-frills service concept with lean characteristics related to supply, service and staffing, and fleet procurement. It is modelled after RyanAir and its low cost model that provides low prices to customers through similar philosophy. The business, by being able to reduce dependency on luxury services in flight and eliminating airport lounge operational costs, gives the ability to offer customers dynamic pricing that outperforms large airline carriers in the market. The aim is to expand the brand presence of the airline to new markets for higher sales revenue through the acquisition of new human capital and fleet availability. The objectives are: Create synergies in cost related to consolidation of existing maintenance crews in relation to training and knowledge sharing of expertise Expand service capacity by incorporating acquired human capital in information technology to improve booking and ticket sales services Improve cultural development through diversification efforts to enhance corporate image, corporate social responsibility, and improve opportunities for external investment through human capital development and culture. In order to make this a success, the airline must devote considerable short-run capital into developing a competent human resources system,

Prepare a consultants report for the Schwab Case Essay

Prepare a consultants report for the Schwab Case - Essay Example This report contains the strategic audit of Charles Schwab and Company. The Instruments used are SWOT analysis and SWOT matrix. Analysis of the company’s position has been undertaken. Different technology models have also been applied in order to undertake the analysis of the technology practices in the company. In the end suggestions and recommendations are presented in order to improve the competitive position of the Company. The strategy of a company requires constant updating. With the changing conditions of market and industry it is important for an organization to keep its strategy in tact with the changing environment. An out dated strategy cannot fulfil the needs of today’s global environment. In order to go through the updating process the organizations should carry on an audit to analyze which aspect requires improvement. It also specifies what strategy is necessary to support the business operations, the information people use currently and the gaps in these functions and the business goals. By assessing the knowledge possessed by an organization about its competitors and market environment the mangers can effectively take decisions in order to find the most feasible way for their businesses to maximize profits and improve market share. It is also important to calculate the extent to which change needs to be introduced to the organization. Although the identification of the problem is a big issue but the finding a solution making sense with business world is the main purpose of change in the organization. â€Å"Back in 1970 Alvin Toffler in Future Shock (Toffler, A. 1970) describes a trend towards accelerating rates of change. He illustrated how social and technological norms had shorter life spans with each generation, and he questioned societys ability to cope with the resulting turmoil and anxiety. In the volatile business environment of the 21st century the most important requirement of today’s

Ethics Case Study Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ethics Case Study - Research Paper Example For instance, they should neither be forced nor be subjected to undue influences. In this case, the child’s mother was not informed (by day care center) of any mistreatment / ill-treatment / neglect regarding her beloved child; hence, the principle of autonomy has been violated. The case comes under child abuse so it should be reported to concerned authorities that would ban the license / registration of that center to avert any further fatalities, thereby saving infants / children. 1.2 - Principle of Non-maleficence The next principle in bioethics is known as non-maleficence that focuses on the least harm to patients (intentionally). For instance, it should be pointed out that certain measures have to be taken that reduces the chance of harm to patients. In addition, the non-maleficence principle also overlaps with due care theory that endorses the idea of care to patients through use of precautionary measures. In this particular case of a child, the day care center certainly neither ensured least harm to the 8-month old nor cooperated with the mother by explaining the condition of her child. Therefore, the principle of non- maleficence is violated since maximum care was not provided to child during absence of her mother. 1.3 - Principle of Beneficence The third ethical principle is known as beneficence that refers to choosing the best option so that greatest good could be done for patients and possibility of evil could be minimized. In this particular case, the best option for day care personnel was to communicate and fully inform child’s mother about the crying, unusual behavior and physical condition of her child so that she could take any immediate measures for rectification. Similarly, the best option for physician was to persuade mother to report the case before court of law instead of satisfying himself that it was not child abuse so it should not be reported. In this way, the principle of beneficence had been violated by the two parties a nd the child’s mother secures right to report and request for punishment to culprits followed by payment of damages (x-ray expenses, physician’s fees etc.). 1.4 - Principle of Justice Another most important principle of bioethics is the justice ethical principle that states that the decision-makers should choose alternatives and make decisions that are fair and that could be justified for all those associated with that case or dilemma. In simple words, the decisions should comply with different ethical approaches. Also, the just and ethical decisions avert the possibility of unrest in the society because the guilty is punished and innocents are protected. In this case, the actual loser in this case is the child’s mother whose trust factor on day care center personnel was affected as well as she had to rush her injured child to hospital, thereby facing emotional and financial issues. Hence, it should be argued in the light of justice approach that the decision sh ould be reported so that the performance of childcare centers could be monitored (Hyden, 1999). For instance, the physicians should also be

The Life of Yukio Mishima Essay Example for Free

The Life of Yukio Mishima Essay Yukio Mishima is a pseudonym of Kimitake Hiraoka, a famous Japanese novelist, playwright and short story writer, actor and social activist, Radical and aesthete, who is considered to be one of the most talented and influential Japanese artists of the 20th century. Mishima was a very prolific writer, who worked in various literary styles and genres and whose creative legacy amounts to more than hundred literary works including 40 novels, 18 plays and screenplays, as well as traditional Kabuki and Noh style theatre dramas, etc. Mishima was born in Tokyo in 1925 to a family of aristocratic samurai ancestry. Future writer was raised by his paternal grandmother, Natsuko Hiraoka, who separated the little boy from his mother for some years. She was a very tough and authoritarian woman, who was keeping the boy in severe discipline. At the same time, she developed in the heart of her grandson a true love for Japanese and European cultures, as well as for theatre, literature and art: in particular, for the works of Izumi Kyoka. He was back to the family at the age of 12. Being a student of the Peer’s School, Mishima started writing the first stories inspired by his favorite Japanese classic writers and Oscar Wilde. Some of this works were published in school magazine and received positive reaction from students and teachers. But, unfortunately, his father, a governmental officer, was strictly against such literary â€Å"exercises† of his son. Therefore, couple of years later Mishima decided to take a pen-name in order not to be revealed by his anti-literary parent. After finishing high school Mishima studied law in Tokyo University. In 1947 after the graduation he worked as an official in the Ministry of Finance, but a year later he made up his mind to resign and completely dedicate himself to writing. His first conceptual work, a semi-autobiographic novel Kamen no kokuhaku (Confessions of a Mask), which was exploring the difficulties of homosexual culture in Japanese society, was published in 1949 and marked a start of bright career and great worldwide popularity of Mishima. In his works Mshima was discussing the issues of love, death, suicide, human beauty and sexuality, personal and religious values, etc. The novels which are the most known in America and Europe include The Sound of Waves (1954), The Temple of the Golden Pavilion (1956), After the Banquet (1960) and, finally, the trilogy The Sea of Fertility (1969-71), which describes the fall of Japanese culture in the beginning of the 20th century. His writing style can be characterized with unique presentation and paying a lot of attention to details, along with engaging some exclusive allegories and elements of paradoxes. But certainly, Yukio Mishima was greatly esteemed on his own lands for his numerous theatre plays. With his pieces The Damask Drum, Hanjo, Kantan and others, he is supposed to be the first writer of modern times who worked in old-fashioned Noh theater style. Several dramas, including Madame de Sad and My Friend Hitler, were written in modern genre Shingeki. Besides, Mishima wrote a number of plays in traditional Kabuki style, which requires some special talent and very rich cultural background. It is necessary to mention that traditional Japanese values were of great importance for Mishima, influencing significantly his life and works. He was particularly disturbed by global imagination about Japan as â€Å"a nation of flower arrangers†, so he devoted his life to reviving of bushido, the traditional code of conduct and values of samurais. Also, he was a fierce antagonist of any Westernization of Japan, arguing in public to spend every effort on preserving Japanese culture and traditions. (Schoenberg Trudeau). As a real Japanese patriot, Mishima had a reputation for discipline, order and self-organization. He used to work on his literary masterpieces from sunset to dawn, spending the daytime in his various social activities. Mishima was three times nominated for the Noble Prize for Literature. He died in November 1970, committing a spectacular ritual suicide seppuku after his unsuccessful speech against the existing pro-American Japanese constitution and anti-emperor regime. Bibliography: †¢ Liukkonen, P. (2003). Yukio Mishima 1925-1970. Pegasus. Kuusankosken kaupunginkirjasto, Finland. Retrieved May 29, 2007, from http://www. kirjasto. sci. fi/mishima. htm . †¢ Schoenberg, T. L. Lawrence J. Trudeau (Eds.) (2006). Mishima, Yukio:   eNotes. com. Retrieved May 29, 2007, from http://www. enotes. com/twentieth-century-criticism/mishima-yukio/introduction? print=1. †¢ Yukio Mishima. (2005, November 18). UXL Newsmakers. 5-6 (1): 87-88. †¢ Yukio Mishima: A 20th Century Warrior. (1995, January March). New Dawn Magazine. 29 (1): 23-24.

Impacts of Technology on Civil Liberties

Impacts of Technology on Civil Liberties The Impact of the Widespread Use of Information and Communication Technologies on Civil Liberties Abstract Advances in information and communication technologies have presented new opportunities and problems for the society. The opportunities that have become obvious with regard to the application of these technologies include meeting the changing demands of the public for enhanced service delivery, an ability to communicate instantaneously over vast distances and being able to store or retrieve vast amounts of information as well as being able to interact with a large number of individuals or organisations by providing them with information over the internet etc. However, these new developments often leave the public sector actors confused because they are often bound by legacy values and outdated socio – economic morality. As democratic societies debate the ethics of the new situation with which they have been confronted, a potential exists for the occurrence of a large number of cases involving a serious misunderstanding of computers and computer based communication with implica tions for civil liberties in a society. Such misunderstandings can mean that a large number of individuals may have their privacy encroached upon, their computing equipment seized and their lives hampered for no real reason. Although governments do have a duty to ensure that various actors are not indulging in activities that are harmful to the society as a whole or to members of a society, it is also important that innocent individuals are not maligned. Information and communication technologies have placed an awesome power in the hands of those who have the imagination to dream up new uses for such technologies and lawmakers have to some how balance the rights of the individuals and those of the society as a whole. This brief essay takes a look at some of the implications of the widespread use of information and communications technologies on civil liberties. Contents (Jump to) Introduction Advances in Technology Provide a Wider Range of Options on Civil Liberties Conclusions Bibliography/References   Introduction Civil liberties refer to the freedoms that are enjoyed by the citizens of a state without interference from governments. Examples of civil liberties include freedom of assembly, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, right to privacy, right to self defence and the right of due process in law as well as the right to a fair trial by a competent court (Wikipedia, 2006, Civil Liberties). The previously mentioned freedoms and rights are usually granted to citizens by virtue of legal enactments that have been written into the laws of a country, including its constitution. The constitutions of various states provide a varying degree of emphasis to civil liberties that can be enjoyed by citizens, but nearly all countries of the world today do offer some degree of protection against interference by a government or others in the lives of a private citizen. As an example, the Australian Constitution guarantees freedom of religion, the South Korean Constitution requires that the government prot ect the privacy as well as dignity of its citizens and the Constitution of the United States of America, through the first ten amendments that are called the Bill of Rights, requires that the government guarantee freedom of speech, freedom of press, freedom of assembly, freedom of religious worship, the right to bear arms, prevent search and seizure without just cause, cruel and unusual punishment and self incrimination as well as ensuring that a citizen is provided the rights to due process and a fair trial by an impartial jury. Any powers related to civil liberties or human rights that have not been explicitly granted to the Federal government in the United States Constitution are reserved by the citizens or the States of the Union. Although the United Kingdom lacks a codified constitution, this country along with many European countries are signatories to the European Convention on Human Rights, which stipulates the standards related to civil liberties and human rights in Europe an countries that are signatory to this instrument. The Human Rights Act of the United Kingdom has been the vehicle for incorporation of many of the European Convention rights into United Kingdom law (Answers.com, 2006, â€Å"Civil Liberties†). Thus, many counties around the world have laws that extend guarantees associated with civil liberties to its citizens. Proliferation of computers, information technology and communications in the present pervasive computing age has made it very convenient to maintain records related to persons and to indulge in surveillance as well as identification of individuals. Maintaining detailed records about all aspects of an individual’s private life, rapid searching and retrieval of information related to an individual, tapping of phone conversations and identification of suspicious communications from keywords as well as relatively foolproof identification of individuals from fingerprints or other biometric signatures such as dental records, DNA or the unique patterns of the iris and the transmission of very detailed records over vast distances in an instant are now quite possible (Akdeniz, 2001, Pp. 1 – 10), (Ashbourn, 2006, Pp. 1 – 20) and (Hassan, 2004, Pp. 1 – 7). It is, therefore, possible for a state or other vested interests to defame and abuse or try to take advantage of individuals as well as to deny them opportunities or to malign them in many ways through the power of information that can be manipulated by technology. This brief essay takes a look at the impact of the widespread use of information and communication technologies on civil liberties in a society. Advances in Technology Provide a Wider Range of Options on Civil Liberties Whereas the menace of international terror and the activities associated with organised crime have meant that governments do have a duty to be vigilant about the safety and security of its citizens and the nation, it is also important that a state, its functionaries or other powerful or mischievous interests in a society desist, or be prevented from undue interference in the private activities of an individual (Greenberg, 2004, Pp. 165 – 168). Such interference may have an appeal for many who may want to try and take undue advantage of information about a citizen that can be readily gathered, stored, transmitted and analysed using the new information and communication technologies. However, technology not only provides a potential for abuse, but it also provides benefits and enhanced safety for all in a society (Campbell, 1998, â€Å"The Social Impact of New Communications Technologies†). Thus, the advent of technology has given a society and individual members of a soc iety a greater power and a lot more options about what can be done to gather detailed information about an individual and to use such information in a number of ways by making it known to others. However, protecting civil liberties requires that such powers be controlled and that the gathering or release of information about individuals be restrained, unless sanctioned by competent and responsible members of a society in the wider interests of other members of the society, so that an individual is not unduly disadvantaged, threatened, abused or taken advantage of by the state or other vested interests in the society. The protection of civil liberties is essential for the evolution and development of an individual’s personality as well as for the protection of any advantages that may have been made available to an individual through their ingenuity, hard work, force of circumstance, manipulations by nature or as a result of a gift from the Divine (Tabata, 2006, Pp. 10 – 20 and 79 – 80), (De Boni, 2001, Pp. 1 – 3) and (Hutson, 2005, Pp. 7). However, it is equally important to safeguard the interests of all members of a society so that the activities of individuals or a group of individuals do not have a destructive impact on others (Lau, 2002, Pp. 1 – 3). Technology has, therefore, provided a greater number of options to a society about the values that it may want to maintain. It is obvious that advances in technology do make it possible for the government of a nation, or other vested interests, such as private telecommunication companies or ISP providers etc, to take advantage of these advances in order to either liberate or to oppress the masses. Thus, the society is presented with choices and depending on what the interested powers want, a balance is struck between what may amount to oppression and what may be considered to be the legitimate authority of the state or others to protect their interests. Debates about civil liberties have always been carried out in democratic societies, even though such debates may have been discouraged or censored in the more authoritarian countries (American Civil Liberties Union, ACLU, 2000, â€Å"Letter to the Senate on Legislation to Increase Law Enforcement Electronic Surveillance†). The more advanced nations have attempted to promote universal standards associated with civil liberties and human rights, but de spite such efforts, what is acceptable as public law varies from one country to the other (Statewatch, 2006, â€Å"Current Lead Stories†). A dictatorial regime in a third world country will not feel any remorse about using all the technology at its disposal to neutralise its opponents or to repress the masses. However, in the more developed world, civil rights groups, public interest groups, the judiciary, business interests and various branches of the government come to some sort of an agreement about how the civil liberties of citizens ought to be protected and what can be considered to be acceptable conduct on the part of the government and other interests. Certainly, the widespread use of information and communications technologies has provided greater opportunities to abuse the civil rights of individuals (Taylor, 2001, â€Å"The Council of Europe Cyber crime Convention: a civil liberties perspective†). However, the previously mentioned technologies can also be us ed to safeguard civil liberties, educate the masses and provide better service to the community. In the United Kingdom, a very substantial increase in the number of phone tapping warrants has been observed in recent years and although this can be attributed to the war against global terrorism and organised crime, it has to be appreciated that no one can intercept private communications in the United Kingdom without a judicial warrant (Akdinez, 2001, Pp. 1 – 5). Disclosure of any data that is considered to be private is also an offence against the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000. Although the use of covert human intelligence gathering about suspects is not illegal under the previously mentioned Act, such activities can be challenged under the Human Rights Act. Thus, the British and European societies in general have placed a reasonably high value on the protection of civil liberties and human rights in matters that are associated with the proliferation of information and communication technologies. In the lesser developed nations, such high standards are less l ikely to be maintained (Waters, 1997, â€Å"Telecommunications interception — extending the reach or maintaining the status quo?†). Surveillance is not just limited to law enforcement authorities, but in the United States such activities may also be carried out by an employer or others with a vested interest, without the consent of an employee or the individual (National Science Foundation, 1998, â€Å"Privacy Issues†) and (Hutson, 2005, Pp. 7). Apart from an enhanced threat of surveillance or monitoring and threats to an individual’s privacy, advances in technology have also produced new problems related to what can be done to prevent interested parties from violating the human rights of others. The awesome power of the internet makes it possible to libel anyone anonymously by writing messages about them as web content. Also, any information that ever makes it to the web can be readily copied and distributed all over the world (Electronic Frontier Foundation, 2006, â€Å"Free Speech†). In addition to activities that are designed to bring persons into disrepute, it is also necessary to control the so called investment companies, online gambling websites and the High Yield Investment Pools that seem to regularly rip off individuals by tantalising them with huge returns on their investment of E-Gold or other similar electronic currency (Pokerpulse.com, 2006, â€Å"Internet gambling and the Patriot Act†). D espite warnings about financial scams that are posted on law enforcement websites by governments of the so called developed world, it appears that the regulators of the World Wide Web have little interest in ensuring that any web content is not fraudulent. It also appears that law enforcement agencies, even in the developed countries, are unable or unwilling to locate financial scam websites despite these being registered by authorised web registrants (Goldpoll.com, 2006, â€Å"HYIP Ratings†). Not a single HYIP has ever delivered anything resembling the investment that an unsuspecting individual makes as a payback, yet these websites are operating with great impunity under the very noses of the global law enforcement agencies and regulators of the World Wide Web. Surely, civil liberties which include freedom of speech and freedom to engage in commerce do not extend to activities that are harmful to other members of the community. However, it has been observed that governments of the great democratic nations are willing to do precious little to regulate financial scams on the web, even though they have tried to control what can be posted on the web (Center for Democracy and Technology, 2006, â€Å"Reports and Articles CDT Sends Letter Opposing Mandatory Labelling†). Thus, many new problems with a potential to damage members of a society by persons or groups with a vested interest have been created by advances in information and communication technologies. Although issues related to these new problems are being debated within societies and legislation is being gradually introduced to regulate new technologies, the process seems to be too slow and cumbersome to protect many who have already been victimised. Because of the global nature of the World Wide Web and the global reach of information and communication technologies, global cooperation is essential to regulate these new technologies in an ethical manner (Brosseau, 2002, Pp. 24 – 32). However, despite a dire need for cooperation, practical results have been exceedingly slow in materialising. Conclusions From the previous discussion it can be concluded that the widespread use of information and communication technologies has created new opportunities as well as new dangers for the protection of civil liberties and human rights. Technology offers power which can be used to do good or to do evil and societies around the world are grappling with the issues of just how to balance civil liberties in relation to protecting the broader interests of the society at large and those of its other members. Different countries have drawn different lines in the air, but a great need exists for a global understanding of the issues involved and some sort of a global cooperation to regulate these new technologies with a global reach. Bibliography / References Akdeniz, Yaman et al. 2001. BigBrother.gov.uk: State surveillance in the age of information and rights. Criminal Law Review, (February, 2001), pp. 73-90. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.cyber-rights.org/documents/crimlr.pdf Akdeniz, Yaman. 1997. First Report on UK Encryption Policy. Cyber-Rights Cyber-Liberties (UK). Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.cyber-rights.org/crypto/ukdtirep.htm American Civil Liberties Union, ACLU. 2000. Letter to the Senate on Legislation to Increase Law Enforcement Electronic Surveillance, Civil Asset Forfeiture, Prosecution of Juveniles in Federal Court, and to Make the Use of Encryption a Grounds for Enhancing a Criminal Penalty. American Civil Liberties Union, ACLU. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.aclu.org/natsec/spying/14380leg20001010.html Andersson, Helena et al. 2002. Survey of Privacy and Information Technology. SATIS, Sweden. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://bscw.sics.se/pub/bscw.cgi/d172149/Survey%20of%20Privacy%20and%20Information%20Technology.pdf Andonova, Veneta. 2004. Communication Technologies: Commercial Adoption and Institutional Environment. Universitat Pompeau Fabra. Retrieved: 2004. From: http://www.tdx.cesca.es/TESIS_UPF/AVAILABLE/TDX-0127105-103146/tvsa1de1.pdf Answers.com. 2006. Civil Liberties. Answers.com. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.answers.com/topic/civil-liberties Ashbourn, Julian. 2006. The Societal Implications of the Wide Scale Introduction of Biometrics and Identity Management. Euroscience Open Forum. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.statewatch.org/news/2006/jul/biometrics-and-identity-management.pdf Bergstrom, Ann M. 2005. THE USA PATRIOT ACT AND CIVIL LIBERTIES: THE MEDIA’S RESPONSE. West Virginia University. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://kitkat.wvu.edu:8080/files/4333/Bergstrom_M_Ann_thesis.pdf Billings, P. R. 1992, DNA on trial: genetic identification and criminal justice Plainview, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. Brosseau, Eric. 2002. Internet Regulation: Does Self-Regulation Require an Institutional Framework? University of Paris X. Retrieved: August 6, 2006. From: http://www.druid.dk/conferences/summer2002/Papers/Brousseau.pdf Campbell, Anne. 1998. The Social Impact of the Information Revolution. Institute for Learning and Research Technology, University of Bristol. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.sosig.ac.uk/iriss/papers/key1.htm Castells, M. 2002, The Internet galaxy: reflections on the Internet, business, and society Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Cavoukian, Anne et al. 2004. Tag, You’re It: Privacy Implications of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Technology. Privacy Commissioner, Ontario. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.ipc.on.ca/scripts/index_.asp?action=31P_ID=15007N_ID=1PT_ID=11351U_ID=0 Center for Democracy and Technology. 2006. Reports and Articles. Center for Democracy and Technology. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.cdt.org/publications/articles.php Civil Liberties Union of the Philippines. Policy Studies Group 1984, Technology as an instrument of domination [Quezon City, Philippines] : Policy Studies Group, Civil Liberties Union. Clutterbuck, R. L., Jamieson, A., Lodge, J. 1991, Counter-terrorism in Europe: implications of 1992 London: Research Institute for the Study of Conflict and Terrorism. Conaway, T. L. 1996. LIBEL IN CYBERSPACE: FEDERAL JUDGES THE INTERNET. The University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.keleka.net/pubs/combinedthesis.pdf CPSR. 2006. Privacy Civil Liberties. Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.cpsr.org/issues/privacy/index_html/view?searchterm=Civil%20Liberties De Boni, Marco and Prigmore, Martyn. 2001. Privacy and the Information Economy. Leeds Metropolitan University. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.leedsmet.ac.uk/ies/comp/staff/deboni/papers/IADIS2003-DeBoniPrigmore-1v1.pdf Demchak, Chris C and Kurt D. Fenstermacher. 2005. Balancing Security and Privacy in the 21st Century. University of Arizona. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enlr=q=cache:zVAc1HDcIasJ:eller.arizona.edu/~kurtf/writing/Balancing-security-privacy-ISI-2004.pdf+technology,+security,+and+liberty+since+9/11 Eid, Mahmoud et al. 2006. Cyber-Terrorism and the Information Sword. University of Ottawa. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.ucc.ie/info-mfcsit/SpecSess-Info/Eid.doc Electronic Frontier Foundation. 2006. Free Speech. Electronic Frontier Foundation. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.eff.org/Censorship/ Ethicsweb.ca. 2006. Computer Ethics. Ethicsweb.ca. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.ethicsweb.ca/resources/computer/publications.html Fitzgerald – Moore, P. 1996. Privacy and Technology. University of Calgary. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.ucalgary.ca/~pfitzger/privacy.pdf Goldpoll.com. 2006. HYIP Performance Ratings. Goldpoll.com. Retrieved: August 5, 2006. From: http://www.goldpoll.com/ Grant, R. A. Bennett, C. J. 1999, Visions of privacy: policy choices for the digital age Toronto; London: University of Toronto Press. Great Britain. Home Office 2004, Legislation on identity cards: a consultation: presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for the Home Department by command of Her Majesty April 2004 London: Stationery Office, 2004. Greenberg, Michael et al. 2004. Trying to Understand Behavioral Responses to Terrorism: Personal Civil Liberties, Environmental Hazards, and U.S. Resident Reactions to the September 11, 2001 Attacks. Human Ecology Review, Vol. 11, No. 2, 2004. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.humanecologyreview.org/pastissues/her112/greenbergcraighillgreenberg.pdf Hassan, Ismail A. 2004. Advances in Information Technology and its Implications on Privacy. Oslo University College. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.iu.hio.no/~frodes/rm/ismail.pdf Hewitt, P., Conference on Computers, R. a. t. R. t. P., National Council for Civil Liberties, Institute of Data Processing Management 1979, Computers, records and the right to privacy: the record of a conference held on 24 and 25 January 1979, organised by the Institute of Data Processing Management, the National Computing Centre Ltd and the National Council for Civil Liberties London: Input Two-Nine Ltd.. Horniak, Virginia. 2004. Privacy of Communication: Ethics and Technology. Mà ¤lardalen University. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.idt.mdh.se/utbildning/exjobb/files/TR0390.pdf Hutson, Priscilla. 2005. Balancing Network Security and Privacy: One Organization’s Effort. Pace University. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000context=honorscollege_theses Kapor, Mitchell. 1991. Civil Liberties in Cyberspace: When does hacking turn from an exercise of civil liberties into crime? Scientific American. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.eff.org/Net_culture/Hackers/civ_lib_and_hacking.article Kidd, R., National Council for Civil Liberties (Great Britain), National Council for Civil Liberties Civil liberty [London] : National Council for Civil Liberties. Kouzmin, Alexander et al. 1999. THE IMPACT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ON THE ETHICS OF PUBLIC SECTOR MANAGEMENT IN THE THIRD MILLENNIUM. Cranfield School of Management. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.spaef.com/GVER_PUB/v2n1/v2n1_korac.html Lau, Stacy. 2002. BIRDS, BEES, AND FILTERING TECHNOLOGY: THE IMPACT OF CIPA ON ADOLESCENT HEALTH. Princeton University. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.onlinepolicy.org/research/block/impact.of.cipa.on.adolescent.health.pdf Musch, D. J. 2003, Civil liberties and the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Oceana Publications. National Science Foundation, USA. 1998. Economic and Social Significance of Information Technologies. National Science Foundation, USA. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind98/access/c8/c8s4.htm Northouse, C. Computer Ethics Institute 2006, Protecting what matters: technology, security, and liberty since 9/11 Washington, D.C.: Computer Ethics Institute: Brookings Institution Press. Oats, Sarah. 2003. Beacon for Democracy or Tool for Oppression? Fitting the Internet into Political Communication Models in Non-Free States. European Consortium for Political Research. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.essex.ac.uk/ecpr/events/jointsessions/paperarchive/edinburgh/ws20/Oates.pdf Paye, Moussa. 2002. New Information Technologies and the Democratic Process. UNRISD. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/(httpAuxPages)/C8BC7D4551751920C1256D73005972B4/$file/payeeng.pdf Pokerpulse.com. 2006. Internet gambling and the Patriot Act. Pokerpulse.com. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.pokerpulse.com/legal/viewtopic.php?t=22 Pool, I. d. S. Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1983, Technologies of freedom Cambridge, Mass.; London: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Rosenzweig, Paul et al. 2004. Biometric Technologies: Security, Legal, and Policy Implications. The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://new.heritage.org/Research/HomelandDefense/lm12.cfm Rowe, B. C., Workshop on the Data Bank Society (, Allen and Unwin, Allen and Unwin Limited, National Computing Centre 1972, Privacy, computers and you Manchester: National Computing Centre. Ryu, Taesam. 2003. The Impact of Cryptographic Policies and Standards. George Mason University. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.noisetoknowledge.com/_Guest_Essays/The%20Impact%20of%20Cryptographic%20Policies%20and%20Standards.pdf Scott, Sheridan and Elder, David. 2002. Changing Communications Regulations in the Information Age. Carleton University, Canada. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.carleton.ca/ctpl/pdf/conferences/scott.pdf Statewatch. 2006. Lead Stories. Statewatch. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.statewatch.org/ Tabata, Alexis. 2006. Reevaluating Bush’s War on Terror: Why Human Rights and Civil Liberties are Essential Tools for and not Obstacles to Security. Harvard College. Retrieved: August 6, 2006. From: http://thesis.haverford.edu/169/01/2006TabataA.pdf Tamara, Dinev et al. 2005. Internet Users’ Privacy Concerns and Attitudes towards Government Surveillance – An Exploratory Study of Cross-Cultural Differences between Italy and the United States. 18th Bled eConference. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://wise.fau.edu/~tdinev/publications/Bled-final.pdf Taylor, Greg. 2001. The Council of Europe Cybercrime Convention: a civil liberties perspective. Privacy Law and Policy Reporter. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/PLPR/2001/35.html UK Government. 2004. Cyber Trust and Crime Prevention Foresight. UK Government. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.foresight.gov.uk/Previous_Projects/Cyber_Trust_and_Crime_Prevention/Project_Process/website_slides.ppt Waters, Nigel. 1997. Telecommunications interception — extending the reach or maintaining the status quo? Privacy Law and Policy Reporter. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From: http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/PLPR/1997/60.html Weimann, G. 2006, Terror on the Internet: the new arena, the new challenges Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press. Wikipedia. 2006. Civil Liberties. Wikipedia. Retrieved: August 4, 2006. From:

Crime And The Built Environment Criminology Essay

Crime And The Built Environment Criminology Essay This research proposal of the theoretical comprehensive based study will explore the relationship between the built environment and crime. Due to increasing urbanization of the world and better data collation techniques coupled with most of the worlds populous being policed by varying degrees of law and order organizations such as the police or religious volunteers, the collation of crime statistics has reached a level of recording and sophistication not afforded to many other human actions. Invariably due to urbanization most crimes take place in the built environment and this has given rise to theories by social researchers, urban planners and politicians which explicitly imply that the built environment has got a part to play in criminal activity. The two statements below underline this thinking by those who have carried out research in this area. The physical environment can exert a direct influence on crime settings by delineating territories, reducing or increasing accessibility by the creation or elimination of boundaries and circulation networks, and by facilitating surveillance by the citizenry and the police. Angel (1968) Historically, social scientists have argued that human behaviour is, to a large degree, a response to environmental conditions. Recently, a group of criminologists posited a direct relationship between certain environmental structures and reported crime rates. Studies exploring this area have pointed to the association between crime rates and high rise residences as support for their position.Using victimization techniques, the experiences of residents of several high and low rise structures in a traditionally low crime area such as the college campus were investigated..Although causality cannot be inferred from the findings, a positive association was observed between high rise areas and property crime rates. (Bynum pages 179-180) This proposal seeks to look at the connection between the built environment and crime by taking three subheadings to act as the aims of the research and act as a pole so that the proposal does not veer off the aims and objectives. The concept map (appendix 1) has focused the research and given the objectives and aims the necessary fields from which the aims and objectives can be realised. These three aims are: Cause: Is the design of the modern built environment the high rise blocks, densities of up to 9,639.0/sq  mi, (District of Colombia), the pace of life, no feeling of citizenship between inhabitants, the gap between the rich and poor which is wider in cities than in the countryside a cause of crime. In short the premise to be answered is that does living in a built environment make you more likely to commit a crime. Facilitator: Does the design of the modern built environment afford criminals the opportunity to carry out criminal enterprises. Does the design, dark alleys, maze of streets, blind spots, decreased surveillance by natural sight make it an aide to the opportunist criminal who can take advantage of local knowledge e.g. escape routes and shortcuts. And if the built environment is designed better will it lead to a reduction in crime. This theory has its proponents as is evidenced by the statement below. Jefferys CPTED concept arose out of his experiences with a rehabilitative project in Washington, D.C. that attempted to control the school environment of juveniles in the area. Rooted deeply in the psychological learning theory of B.F. Skinner, Jefferys CPTED approach emphasized the role of the physical environment in the development of pleasurable and painful experiences for the offender that would have the capacity to alter behavioural outcomes. His original CPTED model was a stimulus-response (S-R) model positing that the organism learned from punishments and reinforcements in the environment. Jeffery emphasized material rewards . . . and the use of the physical environment to control behaviour (Jeffery and Zahm, 1993:330). The major idea here was that by removing the reinforcements for crime, it would not occur. (Robinson, 1996) The Human Condition: This premise asks the question that is it just the human condition that is the cause of crime and that crimes will be committed whatever the design of the built environment and that it is the thinking that needs to change as is expounded by: The environment never influences behaviour directly, but only through the brain. Any model of crime prevention must include both the brain and the physical environment. Because the approach contained in Jefferys CPTED model is today based on many fields, including scientific knowledge of modern brain sciences, a focus on only external environmental crime prevention is inadequate as it ignores another entire dimension of CPTED i.e., the internal environment. (Robinson, 1996) The aims above will help to describe the development of the understanding between crime and the built environment, however more importantly they will help to illustrate the difference of opinion in the subject of different practitioners and give the research paper material to further develop, analyse, compare and justify the research. The above aims when researched will lead to answers which are subjective to the reader. The main objectives of this research proposal are: 1) To expand the understanding and broaden the thinking of practitioners of the built environment to views that they would not normally consider such as that human behaviour is affected by more complex internal structures rather than a simplistic approach of blaming external built structures on modes of behaviour. 2) The research proposes to add another dimension to the connection of crime and the built environment and the wider debate, the dimension of ethics, belief and morality. 3) The research aims to test this notion that stronger religious beliefs will lead to less crime by comparing two distinct communities both racially and in religious belief residing in the same city of Birmingham in almost similar built environments. These two communities are the overall majority in each area of the city the first being the ward of Aston and the second being Stechford. The census information and latest crime figures are attached (Appendix 2). Literature Review. The research will revolve around analysing, criticising and defining literature written by a plethora of commentators, researchers and practitioners in the field of the built environment, illustrating how it developed why it still needs to go further and how this research can add to this. The main focus of the literature review will be theories expounded by papers written and books published by the CPTED (Crime Prevention through Environmental Design) formulated by criminologist C RAY Jeffrey. As far back as 1968 this theory was studied by Schlomo Angel. The physical environment can exert a direct influence on crime settings by delineating territories, reducing or increasing accessibility by the creation or elimination of boundaries and circulation networks, and by facilitating surveillance by the citizenry and the police. (Schlomo Angel, 1968) Other commentators added to this by saying: Historically, social scientists have argued that human behaviour is, to a large degree, a response to environmental conditions. Recently, a group of criminologists posited a direct relationship between certain environmental structures and reported crime rates. Studies exploring this area have pointed to the association between crime rates and high rise residences as support for their position.Using victimization techniques, the experiences of residents of several high and low rise structures in a traditionally low crime area such as the college campus were investigated..Although causality cannot be inferred from the findings, a positive association was observed between high rise areas and property crime rates. (Bynum 1984) However the research moved on and new literature published opened up new ideas and thinking into the subject. The CPTED model evolved and the new thinking was that: The environment never influences behaviour directly, but only through the brain. Any model of crime prevention must include both the brain and the physical environment. Because the approach contained in Jefferys CPTED model is today based on many fields, including scientific knowledge of modern brain sciences, a focus on only external environmental crime prevention is inadequate as it ignores another entire dimension of CPTED i.e., the internal environment. (Robinson, 1996) In a space of less than thirty years the whole thinking has changed and the recognition that not only the external environment needs to change but internal changes need to take place. However the internal environment under examination needs to be further developed in the sense that how the internal environment i.e. beliefs resulting in better morals and ethics can help to prevent crime in the built environment. This research will be making a start in this new field. METHODOLOGY The main core of the research will consist of reference to secondary sources thus the research will take on a quantitative nature. Qualitative research has not been ruled out as this is an area with limited knowledge. This will take place in the form of a primary approach to the research by interviewing one of the 13 Crime Prevention Design Officers employed by the West Midlands Police and conducting the interview on the basis of gauging personal experience of crime in architecturally similar neighbourhoods populated by distinct communities who believe in and operate within the confines of separate moral and ethical value systems which may be very similar but adherence is stricter in one community than the other. This research can be viewed as exploratory in nature. (Naoum 1998) Interrogation and comparative analysis West Midlands Police crime statistics and also census statistics of the two wards selected will establish where there is a difference and ask why, is there is a certain religious prohibition is one community that doesnt t exist in the other. Problems in this type of research are that the reliability of the data can be questioned or the recording method of crime statistics can be questioned or for that argument the recording method of any set of statistics (Kumar 2005) however due to the strict guidelines under which this date is collated there is little danger of that. Conclusion The research will develop via an extensive reading list and research on not just planning and built environment but also crime how its increased and how religious belief is on the decrease. The research will initially be a desk based exercise and the primary research aspect will come into the study when the 3rd notion is written on and the input of the Crime Prevention Design Officer is included in reference to an interview which will ask for expansion of explanation on crime figures of the two neighbourhoods. The research findings may prove to be controversial if the notion tested is correct however the main problem is to present the information in a concise manner which will give rise to further enquiry. Findings should give impetus to researchers to conduct research on a wider basis i.e. comparing crime in urban environments in New York and New Delhi for example. The main tasks to be completed can be viewed on the Gantt chart attached (appendix 3). The main crux of this study and the overall aim is to add another dimension to the debate in the guise of a moral and ethical dimension to the built environment and crime. The findings once established will either reinforce the current view that crime in the built environment can only reduce by better and intelligent design, or it will give credence to the new ideas that you cannot simply design your way out of crime in the built environment but something more fundamental, the human condition needs to change and that crime prevention by environmental design (CPTED) although useful is not the final answer.