Brief History of Microbiology

Brief History of Microbiology1- How Can Microbes Be Classified?Fungi, Protozoa, Algae, Prokaryotes and otherwise existences of richness to microbiologistsB- The comfortable Age of Microbiology1- Is Spontaneous Generation Of Microbial Life leanable?Redis examine, Needhams sample, Sp every(prenominal)anzanis Experiment, Pasteurs Experiment.CHAPTER (1) A BRIEF HISTORY OF MICROBIOLOGYMicrobiology is the test of organisms and factors too sm entirely to be seen cl archeozoic by the naked eye. It is the say of microorganisms, or beginnings or microbes. However, whatsoever of these microorganisms ar large and visible by our naked eye such(prenominal) as mushrooms, brown algae, and lichens.Viruses, bacterium, algae, fungi, and protozoa be recollective to microorganisms.Life would non come through with stunned microorganisms. Plants depend on microorganisms to help them obtain their nitrogen they need from air. Animals such as cows and sheep need microorganisms in order to d igest the carrellulose in their diets.Our ecosystem rely on microorganisms to enrich colly, degrade wastes and supports life. Without microbial recyclers, the world would be buried under dead organisms.We use beneficial microorganisms to make our nourishment such as cheese, yoghurt, bread, to develop our vaccines, hormones, vitamins and antibiotics. The human body is home to billions of microorganisms, umteen of which help keep us healthy.Microorganisms be non save an indwelling part of our lives they argon quite literally a part of us. Microorganisms arouse be both beneficial and insalubrious (infectious unsoundness agents) to humans, animals and plants. any(prenominal) harmful microorganisms as well do ride diseases, from the common cold to AIDS. The threats of bioterrorism and impudently or re-merging infectious diseases are real problem.We will explore all the roles (both harmful and beneficial) that microorganisms play in our lives in this fascinating course.Imp ortance of bacteriaBacteria lot be categorized into harmful and useful bacteria, piece of music some bacteria are non harmful-non useful.Harmful bacteriaBacteria get to some major diseases to humans, animals and plants. Among these diseases cholera, typhoid, tetanus, pneumonia, tuberculosis and meningitis.Some pathogenic bacteria expose poisonous chemicals called toxins which affect accepted parts of the host body.In provender industry, bacteria social movement spoilage of nutriment and food poising.Useful bacteriaBacteria produce antibiotics which for the treatment of diseases.Bacteria provide enzymes for biological backwash powders.Bacteria are apply as microbial plant louseicides protecting crops from insect pests.Bacteria are used to leach out metals from some impression grade ores such as copper and gold.Bacteria contribute greatly to food industry (butter, cheese, and yogurt).Certain bacteria are used to transfer lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid.Certain bacte ria are used to win over alcohol into vinegar.Bacteria have an essential role in the rude(a) cycles of matter. In the soil, bacteria affect fertility, structure and productivity of corps.One of the well-nigh important roles of bacteria is the breakdown of dead organisms and organic wastes into its basic inorganic parts. Carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, and sulfur are some of the most important sensibles returned to the soil and atmosphere. Such cycling of materials could not occur in the absence of certain bacteria.9. As a source of food (single cell protein (SCP). Bacteria are a good source of (SCP) with plenty of food and space. (SCP mint be produced using bacteria growing in waste paper, pollutants or both food waste product).The Early Years Of MicroorganismsThe early years of microbiology brought the premier observations of microbial life, and the initial efforts to organize them into logical motley.Early investigators suspected the world of microorganisms and their rol e in disease development even before microorganisms were detected.The offset printing person discovered and depict microorganisms was Antony van Leeunwenhoek (The draw of Bacteriology and Protozoology) (Dutch) in 1674. He was a tailor and a lens grinder. He used to reconcile lenses to examine the quality of the clothes.He invented fair microscope in 1674 and he observed, drew, and metric large numbers of minute living organisms including bacteria and protozoa in pond water. He also described the motion, morphology and diversity of bacteria and protozoa.How Can Microbes Be Classified?Shortly afterwardswards Leeunwenhoek make his discoveries, the Swedish botanist Linnaeus positive(p) a taxonomic system-that is a system for appellative plants and animals and grouping similar organisms together. Linnaeus and other scientists of that period grouped all organisms into both animal kingdom or the plant kingdom. Today biologists use the v kingdoms classification system and the three kingdoms classification system.The microorganisms that Leeunwenhoek described can be grouped into five basic categories fungi, protozoa, algae, prokaryotes and small animals. The entirely microbes not described by Leeunwenhoek are viruses which are too small to be seen without an negatron microscope.Cells are of twain characters1- Prokaryotic cells (pro = before, karyon = nut or kernel). ideal Bacteria(i) Organisms very simple in shape.(ii) The cells lack on-key tissue layer delimited nucleus.2- Eukaryotic cells (Eu = true, karyon = nut or kernel). Examples Algae, fungi, protozoa, higher plants and animals.(i) morphologically more than(prenominal) complex than prokaryotes and larger in coat.(ii) Organisms with true nucleus. They have a membrane enclose nucleus. .Biologists have divided living organisms into five kingdoms soil Monera or Prokaryote includes prokaryotic organisms (Bacteria and archea) and Cyanobacteria (the blue-green bacteria, formerly called blue-gree n algae). region Protista Include either unicellular or colonial eucaryotic organisms that lack true tissues (Protozoa, small algae, and lower fungi). land Fungi Includes eukaryotic organisms with absorptive nutrition and often multinucleate. Fungi includes moulds (filamentous fungi) and yeasts (unicellular fungi).Kingdom Animalia Multicellular animals with ingestive nutrition (Vertebrates and invertebrates).Kingdom Plantae Multicellular plants with walled eukaryotic cells and photosynthetic ability.Viruses do not fit into the classification of living organisms (five kingdoms classification system) because they are dependent on other cells for their reproduction (obligate parasites). Nevertheless viruses are also studied by microbiologists.The recent classification divided organisms into 3 kingdoms based on the analysis of the 16S RNA.Bacteria ( genuine bacteria or Eubacteria).Archaea (Archaeobacteria).Eukarya (All eukaryotic organisms).Fungi (Mycology)Fungi are organisms whose cel ls are eukaryotic with a true nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane. Fungi take issue from animals by having cell walls. Fungi are different from plants because they are heterotrophic (obtain their food from other organisms which is different from plants (obtain their food by themselves through photosynthesis i.e. autotrophic). microscopic fungi include molds (filamentous fungi) and yeasts (unicellular fungi). Molds are multicellular organisms that are grow as long filaments called hyphae that intertwine to make up the body of the mold. Molds regurgitate by sexual and asexual spores which produce new individuals.Yeasts are unicellular and they sick by budding. Many types of fungi are beneficial and some are also very harmful to humans causing many diseases. mushroom cloud is a typical example of macroscopic fungi. Some mushrooms are also poisonous and can cause death.Protozoa (Protozoology or Parasitology)Protozoa are single celled eukaryotic microorganisms with true nucleus t hat are similar to animals in their nutritional needs and cellular structure. The suffix protozoa in classical mean (the foremost animals). Most protozoa are capable of locomotion through pseudopodia, cilia or flagella.Protozoa typically live freely in water, but some live inside animal hosts, where they can cause diseases. Most protozoa reproduce asexually, however some can reproduce sexually.Algae (Phycology)Algae are unicellular or multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic organisms. Algae are categorized on the basis of their pigmentation, retention products and their cell walls.Large algae commonly called seaweeds and kelps are common in the oceans. Unicellular algae are common in freshwater ponds, streams and lakes and in the oceans as well. They are the major food source of small aquatic and marine animals and provide most of the worlds oxygen as a spin-off of photosynthesis.Prokaryotes (Bacteriology)Prokaryotic microorganisms are unicellular microbes that lack nuclei. The re are two kinds of prokaryotes true bacteria (Eu-bacteria) and archaea (Archaeobacteria). Bacterial cell walls are peaceful of a polysaccharide called peptidoglycan, although some bacteria lack cell walls. Bacteria without cell walls are called mycoplasma. The cell walls of archaea lack peptidoglycan and instead are composed of other polymers.Most bacteria and archaea are much smaller than the eukaryotic microorganisms. True bacteria are appoint in all environments, however, archaea are only found in extreme environments (Difficult or harsh environments) (e.g. High or low temperature, high or low pH, high salinity, high pressure). otherwise Organisms Of Importance To MicrobiologistsMicrobiologists also study parasitic worms which range in size from microscopic forms to adult tapeworms over 7 meters in length.The only type of microbes that remained hidden from Leeunwenhoek and other early microbiologists are viruses, viroids and prions which are much smaller than the smallest pro karyotic microorganisms and are not visible by light microscopy. Viruses could not seen until the electron microscope was invented in 1932.All complete viruses are acellular (not composed of cells) obligatory parasites composed of small amounts of divisortic material (genome) (RNA or desoxyribonucleic acid never both) surrounded by a protein covering. The incomplete virus (Prions) consists only of protein coat and there is no nucleic acid and only attacks human and animals. charm the incomplete virus (Virioid) consists only of nucleic acid and there is no protein coat and only attacks plants.Leeunwenhoek fist reported the populateence of microorganisms in 1674, but microbiology did not develop significantly as a field of study for most two centuries. There were a number of reasons for this delay. First, Leeunwenhoek was a suspicious and tight man. Though he built over than 400 microscopes, he never trained an apprentice, and he never sold or gave onward a microscope. When Lee unwenhoek died, the secret of creating superior microscope was lost. It took almost 100 years for scientists to make microscopes of equivalent weight quality.Another reason that microbiology was slow to develop as a scientific discipline is that scientists in the 1700s considered microbes to be curiosities of nature and in-significant to human affairs. But in the posthumous 1800s, scientists began to adopt a new philosophy, one that demand observational induction rather than mere acceptance of traditional knowledge. This fresh philosophical foundation, accompanied by improved microscopes, new laboratory techniques, and a drive to dish up a serial of important questions, propelled microbiology to the forefront as a scientific discipline.The Golden Age of MicrobiologyFor about 50 years during what is now called The Golden Age of Microbiology, scientists were driven by the search for answers o the following 4 questionsIs spontaneous generation of microbial life possible?What cau ses fermenting?What causes diseases?How can we clog infection and disease?Competition among scientists, who were striving to be the premier to answer these questions, drove exploration and discovery in microbiology during the late 1800s and early 1900s. These scientists discoveries and the fields of study they initiated continue to shape the course of microbiological research today.1 Is Spontaneous Generation Of Microbial Life Possible?In the superannuated times, many peoples believed that living organisms could develop from non-living matter, and they named this phenomenon as spontaneous generation (abiogenesis). Aristotle believed that simple invertebrates could arise by spontaneous generation. He also believed that frogs and shrimps could arise from mud, insects from the break of the day dew and maggots from decaying centre of attention. The validity of this theory came under challenge in the 17th century.Redis Experiment (1626-1697).The spontaneous generation conflict wa s finally challenged by the Redi (1688), who carried out a series of experiments using decayed meat and he studies the ability of meat to produce maggots spontaneously. He concluded that maggots do not arise by spontaneous generation.In un plastered flask The maggots covered the meat inwardly few days.In the sealed flasks The flies were kept away and no maggots appeared on the meat.In the gauze-covered flask The flies were kept away and no maggots appeared on the meat, although a few maggots appeared on the top of the gauze.Needhams Experiment (1713-1781).He boil beef neckcloth in a sealed flask. Some days later he demonstrated that many of these flasks became cloudy and contained microorganisms. He judgment that the organic matter in the meat contained a indispensable force that could give the properties of life from non-living matter. Since he heated the flasks he thought that the microorganisms is coming from the non living beef broth.Spallanzanis Experiment (1729-1799).Spal lanzanis in 1799 reported results that contradicted Needhams findings. Spallanzani boiled some infusions for one hour and sealed the vials by melting their fine necks closed. His infusion remained clear, unless he broke the seal and exposed the infusion to air, after which they became cloudy with microorganisms. He concluded three thingsNeedham had either failed to heat his vials sufficiently.Microorganisms exist in the air and can contaminate the experiments.Spontaneous generation of microorganisms does not occur. All living things arise from other living things.Criticisms of Spallanzanis work wereThe sealed vials did not allow enough air for organisms to survive.The prolonged heating for long time (one hour) destroyed the Life force.The debate continued until the French apothecary Louis Pasteur conducted experiments that finally solved the theory of spontaneous generation to rest.Pasteurs Experiment (1822-1895).In 1861, Pasteur (The Father of Microbiology) solved the spontaneous generation conflict.The Swan Neck ExperimentPasteur placed nutritious solutions in flasks heated their necks in a burst out and drew them out in a variety of cut shapes, and he kept the ends of the neck open to the air. He then boiled the nutrient solutions for a few minutes and allowed them to cool. No microbial addition was observed even the flask contents were exposed to the external air currents.Pasteur pointed out that no growth was observed because dust and germs had been collected on the walls of the curved pre-heated necks. If the necks were broken, microbial growth appeared. The results obtained by Pasteur were against the spontaneous generation theory.2- What Causes Fermentation?Pasteur essential the pasteurization a process of heating the grape succus unspoiled enough to kill most contaminating bacteria without changing the juice backs qualities so it could then be inoculated with yeast to ensure that alcohol fermentation occurred.Pasteur thus began the field of in dustrial microbiology or biotechnology in which microbes are used to manufacture beneficial products.Today pasteurization is used routinely on milk to eliminate pathogenic bacteria that cause tuberculosis and is also used to eliminate pathogenic bacteria and fungi in juices and other beverages.Because of Pasteur many significant accomplishments in working with microbes, Pasture is considered the Father of Microbiology.3- What Causes Diseases?Robert Koch (German Doctor) (the golden age of microbiology 1880-1920) was the first person to demonstrate the role of bacteria in causing anthrax disease in 1876. Kochs proof that vitamin B anthracis caused anthrax.Koch discovered that bacteria are responsible for causing a disease. This was called the germ theory of disease. The science of etiology (the study of causation of diseases) was dominated by Robert Koch.Koch established criteria for proving the causal relationship among a microorganism and a particularised disease. These criteria are know as Koch postulates, and it can be summarized as follows(i)- The organism should be constantly present in animals or plants ache from the disease and should not be present in healthy individuals.(ii)- The organism must be cultivated in pure refining away from the animal or plant body.(iii)- Such a culture when inoculated into subject animals or plants should initiate the characteristic disease symptoms.(iv)- The organism should be re-isolated from these experimental animals or plants and cultured again in the laboratory, after which it should whitewash be the same as the original organism.Koch also developed media suitable for the isolation of pure bacterial cultures from human body. He developed nutrient broth and nutrient agar media.In 1882 Koch has used these methods to isolate the bacteria that cause tuberculosis.During Kochs studies on bacterial pathogens, it became necessary to isolate suspected bacterial pathogens. At first, he cultured bacteria on sterile surfac es of cut, boiled potatoes. This was unacceptable because bacteria would not always grow well on potatoes because of the sulkiness of the potato tissues.He then tried to solidify regular liquidness medium by adding gelatin. Separate bacterial colonies developed after the surface had been streaked with a bacterial sample. When the gelatin medium hardened, individual bacteria produced separate colonies. Despite its advantages, gelatin was not an ideal solidification agent because it was digested by many bacteria and melted when the temperature rose above 28C.Fannie Hesse suggested a better alternative. She suggested the use of agar as a solidifying agent. Agar is derived from red algae. Agar was not attacked by most bacteria and did not melt until reaching a temperature of 100C distant gelatin.Richard Petri developed the Petri dish (Plate) in 1887, a container for making solid culture media. This development made possible the isolation of pure cultures that contained only a single microorganism.Koch and his colleagues are also responsible for many other advances in laboratory microbiology, including the followingSimple espial techniques for bacterial cells and flagella.The first photomicrograph of bacteria.The first photograph of bacteria in diseased tissues.Techniques for estimating the number of bacteria in a solution based on the number of colonies that form after inoculation onto a solid surface.The use of steam to sterilize growth media.The use of Petri dishes to hold solid growth media.Aseptic laboratory techniques such as transferring bacteria between media using platinum wire that has been sterilized in a flame.Koch hypothesized that each bacterial colony consisted if the progeny of a single cell.Koch use laboratory animals to inject bacteria and study disease development.For these achievements, Koch is considered as the Father of the Microbiological laboratory.Grams stainAlthough Koch reported a simple staining technique in 1877, the Danish scient ist Gram developed a more important staining method in 1884. His procedure which involves the application of series of dyes made some microbes blue and others red. The blue cells are called the Gram positive and the red cells are called the Gram negative. We now use Gram smudge to separate bacteria into these two large groups.The gram stain is still the most widely used staining technique. It is one of the first travel carried out in any laboratory where bacteria are be identified.4 How Can We Prevent Infection And Disease?1 Semmelweis and slip by washingSemmelweis was a physician began requiring medical students to wash hands with chlorinated caustic lime water.2 Listers Antiseptic TechniqueJoseph Lister (1867), an English surgeon found indirect evidence that microorganism were agents of human disease. He worked on the barroom of wound infection. He developed a system of antiseptic operating theater designed to prevent microorganism from entering wounds. Instruments were heat sterilized and hydroxybenzene was used on surgical dressings and sprayed over the surgical area. He provided a strong evidence for the role of microorganisms in disease development because phenylic acid which killed bacteria also prevented wound infections.3 nightingale and NursingNightingale was an English nurse and she is the founder of modern nurse and she introduced cleanliness and antiseptic techniques into nursing practices.4 Snow and EpidemiologyJohn Snow an English physician plays a key role ion setting standards for good public hygiene to prevent the scatter of infectious diseases.His study was the foundation for two branches of microbiology (infection control) and epidemiology (study of the occurrence, distribution and spread of disease in humans).5 Jenners VaccineOn 1796, Edward Jenner used cowpox-infected material to success unspoilty vaccinate people against human small pox.He name the process vaccination after Vaccinia, the virus that causes cowpox.Jenner invented vaccination or immunization.In honor of Jenners work with cowpox, Pasteur used the term vaccine to refer to all weakened protective strains of pathogens.6 Ehrlichs magic bullets and ChemotherapyEhrlich found that chemicals could be used to kill microorganisms.He discovered chemicals active against trypanosomes the protozoan that causes sleeping unhealthiness and against Treponema that cause syphilis. His discoveries began the branch of chemotherapy.The Modern Age of Microbiology1 How Do Genes work?Over the past 40 yeasts, advances in microbial genetics developed into several new disciplines that are among the faster growing areas of scientific research today includingmolecular(a) biologyA molecular(a) BiologyMolecular biology combines aspects of biochemistry, cell biology and genetics to explain cell economic consumption at the molecular level.Molecular biologists are concerned with genome sequencing.A full understating of the genomes of organisms will result in practi cal ways to limit disease, recur genetic defects and enhance agricultural yield.B Recombinant DNA technologyMolecular Biology is applied in recombinant DNA technology, commonly called genetic plan which was first developed using microbial models. This includes the production of human insulin in genetically engineered bacteria.C Gene therapyAn exciting new area of study is the use of recombinant DNA technology for gene therapy. This is a process that involves inserting a missing gene or repairing a defective gene in human cells. This procedure uses harmless viruses to insert a desired gene into host cells where it is incorporated into a chromosome and begins to function normally.2 What Roles Do Microorganisms impart in the Environment?The study of microorganisms in their natural environment is called environmental Microbiology or microbial ecology.3 How We Defend Against Disease?Advancements in chemotherapy were made in the 1900s with the discovery of numerous substances such as penicillin and sulfa drugs that preclude bacteria.4 The Scope And Relevance of MicrobiologyMicrobiology has both basic aspects and applied aspects. A scientist working in the field of microbiology is called a microbiologist. Many microbiologists are enkindle in the biology of microorganisms. They may focus on a specific group of microorganisms and are called Virologist (Virology is the study of viruses), Bacteriologist (Bacteriology is the study of bacteria), Phycologist (Phycology is the study of algae), Mycologist (Mycology is the study of fungi), and Protozoologist (Protozoology is the study of protozoa).Other microbiologist work in other fields such as microbial physiology, microbial cytology, microbial ecology, and microbial taxonomy. Other microbiologists have more practical applied fields such as medical microbiology, food and dairy microbiology, and public health microbiology.Medical Microbiology Deals with human and animal diseases. bucolic Microbiology Deals with the application of microorganisms in agriculture.Public health Microbiology Deals with the control of the spread of diseases. pabulum and dairy Microbiology Deals with the application of microorganisms by man to make foods such as cheese, bread, and other important products.Industrial Microbiology Deals with the industrial application of microorganisms such as the production of vaccines, antibiotics, vitamins and enzymes.Microbial Ecology or Environmental microbiology Deals with the relationship between microorganisms and their environments.Microbial physiology and Biochemistry Deals with the study with physiology of microorganisms and the effects of physical and chemical agents on the pick of microorganisms.6 What Will The Future Hold?What will microbiologists discover abutting?Among the questions for the next 50 years are the followingWhat is the physiology of life forms that can not be grown in laboratory and only known to us now by their nucleic acid sequences?Does life exist be yond planet Earth, and if so, what are its features?How can we reduce the threat of infectious diseases, oddly those that can be used by bioterrorists?

Utilization And Case Management At A Hospital

Utilization And persona direction At A infirmarySierra View District Hospitals (SVDH) utilization reexamine (UR) process originates in the Case concern (CM) department. They are responsible for the show window check and obtaining social swear outs for those affected role roles in need of services. This paper go out describe how this process works and how SVDH compares to another facilitys UR structure. There go away in addition be a discussion about the weaknesses of the SVDH program.Utilization Management at SVDHThe CM department is responsible for the UR process at SVDH. This department, which has 13 employees, is provideed as follows tetrad Case Managers two licensed clinical social workers four-spot social services worker a Department Analyst and a Wound Care Specialist. An Administrative Director oversees the department.The CM department follows a Utilization Review Plan (Appendix A) which establishes how the CM department lead examine examples and address po tential discrepancies from established best practice guidelines like McKessons InterQual Criteria (McKesson, 2010). The four Case Managers are to conduct concurrent reviews on each(prenominal) Medi apprehension admissions. They pass judgment the tolerant chart and documentation to command the correct medical fearfulness status of In enduring or Observation Services is assigned to the affected role. If the uncomplaining is assigned the correct status then the Case Manager leave behind flag the case for review in three to four long time to ensure the status of the patient has not tiltd to such a detail that all a higher(prenominal) or lower service train is required. If that is the case, the manager bequeath involvement the primary palm physician and desire an order changing the service level. If the physician does not bind, and the documentation in the case ceases to support the current level of care, the case manager will forward the case to the physician adviso r for review. If the physician advisor agrees that a new level of care is called for then he/she will contact the physician to seek further clarification as to why the patient needs continued services at the current level. Depending on this conversation, in that respect are four possible outcomes for the patient status. One, the patient status will remain at the current level of care be begin the initial physician has informed the physician advisor of extenuating circumstances regarding the case. Two, the physician will agree to the variation of the patient status to either a higher or lower level of care. Three, the physician will not agree with the physician advisor, and the advisor will refer the case for the UR committee for a panel decision, which can overrule the original physician or Four, the patient can be discharged from the infirmary. musical composition Case Managers are workings the UR of a patient, the Social Workers are concerned about all after-care the patient may require. The Case Managers and Social Workers work together to come up with a discharge plan beginning on the first twenty-four hours of admission. The Social Workers make sure the patients pass water all the contact cultivation they may need once discharged, and the Case Managers work to ensure agreement of the patient in an extended recovery care facility if needed.SVDHs UR weapons platform Compared to other HospitalsSVDHs UR program is comparable to that of Jewish Hospital (St. Louis). introductory to 1985, the eye for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) reimbursed hospitals for services rendered. Due to increasing costs to the Medicare Trust Fund, the symptomatic Related Group (DRG) system was developed to reimburse hospitals based on what the average cost of a particular surgery. UR programs at both hospitals began to change to go through the new challenges instituted by CMS. Utilization Review became Case Management at SVDH, while Jewish Hospital named their prog ram Case Coordination. The cater members at both facilities became more involved in complete patient care, from admission to post-discharge. SVDH experienced the same growing pains that Jewish Hospital did when Observation Services became a new cost savings service line instituted by CMS.The next challenge arose in 1990, when timbre initiatives arose. These initiatives have only increased since that time, with the establishment of Quality Initiative Organizations (QIO). The QIOs review hospital data and report results back to CMS. The goal of these organizations is to locate services that do not meet their (CMS) standards. When found the QIO will deny payment for the services. While Jewish Hospital attempts to complete a carbon% review for quality indicators on all cases, either concurrent or retrospective, SVDH chose to focus 100% on Core Measure cases only. While Jewish Hospital office be ensuring that all cases have a minimum standard of quality, SVDH complies with control s tick Commission standards by only reviewing the Core Measure cases.Weakness of the political platformThere is a major(ip) weakness in the SVDH Case Management program, and it has been a weakness for some time. SVDH CM is not a 24/7/365 program. The Case Managers work Monday through Friday from eight to five. One Case Manager works from eight until noon on Saturday in the soupcon room, but there is no coverage on Sunday. This means that the ane Case Manager only reviews the cases that were admitted from Friday at 500 PM until 800 AM Saturday morning. If she has time she will also pick up any additional cases she can prior to leaving at noon, but there is no guarantee of that happening. The entire CM staff will review any cases not previously reviewed on Monday, if the patient is still in-house, or the case will undergo a retrospective review. This can cause continuing care problems for patients.An example of one of these problems recently occurred when a patient was not reviewed d ue to no CM personnel on staff on Friday evenings. The patient presented to the Emergency Room on Friday, and was subsequently position in Observation Services at the hospital, This case was not reviewed by the weekend case manager. On Monday morning, the CM personnel started reviewing the Medicare admissions and saw this patient on the CM list. In reviewing the chart, the patient plainly met Inpatient criteria. The attendance physician could not be contacted so the case was referred to the physician advisor, who hold the patient should have been classified as Inpatient. The status was changed as of Monday morning. CMS guidelines put up that a status can only be changed upon the presentation of an order, and at no point can an Observation Services case be born-again to an Inpatient status retroactively. The patient needed additional remedy services that would be provided in a long term care facility, but CMS guidelines state that Medicare will only pay for those services if th e patient has had a qualifying Inpatient stay in a hospital for a minimum of three calendar days (Centers for Medicare Medicaid Services, 2009). Since this patients status converted to Inpatient on Monday morning, the time spent in the hospital from Friday until conversion on Monday did not count towards the qualifying stay. The quandary then is to either discharge the patient to the care facility without a qualifying stay, thereby making the patient responsible for the entire cost of the care, or charge the patient in the hospital for an additional two days in order to meet the qualifying stay requirements. The obvious answer is to confine the patient in order for them to obtain the necessary time to micturate the qualifying stay. This, however, places a bed out of circulation that could have been used by another patient, and might incur costs that do not meet reimbursement criteria for the hospital. Had a CM staff member been on duty Friday night, the case could have been caug ht earlier, and the qualifying stay could have begun on Friday instead of Monday.The major obstacle to hiring more Case Managers is, frankly, the cost of salaries. Any additional strike costs are scrutinized closely in these times of shrinking reimbursements. Prior to bringing on new staff, in any area, the return on the investment is reviewed for a profitability margin. If a profit margin cannot be realized then the likelihood of incurring that additional expense is small. Other projects that bring a greater profitability margin have interpreted priority over additional staff in the CM department. end pointThe CM Department administers SVDHs UR program. The CM Department encompasses several different services, all dedicated to providing total care to the patient while in the hospital and post-discharge. SVDHs program mirrors common practices within the industry. Like Jewish Hospital (St. Louis), CM at SVDH has evolved and changed over the years to meet the new demands placed on it by regulatory agencies. The CM Department constantly works with physicians to ensure patients receive the appropriate level of care based on physician documentation and InterQual guidelines. The major weakness in the CM program at SVDH is that it is not a 24/7/365 department. This flaw sometimes places the continuum of care for the patient at odds with the regulatory guidelines, and SVDH has to forego reimbursement for services in exchange for better overall patient care and patient monetary security.

Globalisation The Prospects And Challenges Politics Essay

b whole-shapedisation The Prospects And Challenges administration EssayWithout an iota of doubt it set up be said that superstar of the metanarratives of our time is valet de chambre-wideisation. Indeed, the phrases similar the mankind has be add up a spheric hamlet train become clichs. To quote Fred Halliday Globalization has become, over the past few years, the catchword of inter issue scotch and policy-making compend. Halliday, 2000, pp. 238 David Held and Anthony Mcgrew stimulate expressed this in a slightly diametric elbow room Indeed, globalisation is in peril of becoming, if it has non already become, the clich of our times the big idea which encompasses everything from global m geniustary trades to the Internet but which delivers little substantive insight into the contemporary gentlemans gentleman condition Held, Mcgrew, et al. 1999, pp. 1 They then superinduce globalization reflects a widespread perception that the cosmos is rapidly existence moul ded into a sh bed friendly space by frugal and technological forces and that teachings in wiz region of the earth can view as profound consequences for the life chances of individuals or communities on the some other type count of the globe.I cabalHere in this paper, commencement ceremony we willing deal with the renderingal and conceptual aspects of globalization. whence we will focus on the prospects and challenges of globalization. Finally, we will try to arrive at a cogent conclusion.Globalization has been defined by different writers in different ways. Indeed, it has got different meanings to different people. match to Anthony Mcgrew, in simplest term, globalization refers to widening, compound and speeding up of military manwide interconnectedness Mcgrew in smith and Baylis (ed), pp. 20.Martin Griffiths and terry cloth O Callaghan have defined is as the acceleration and intensification of mechanisms, soures and activities that ar allegedly promoting global i nterdependence and perhaps ultimately global political and frugal integration. It is, therefore, a revolutionary concept, involving the deterritorialisation of cordial, political, stinting, and cultural life. Griffiths and OCollaghan, 2004, pp. 126-127.According to Steve Smith and John Baylis, globalization is the carry through of change magnitude interconnectedness amid societies such that stillts in one part of the human have more and more effects on peoples and societies for away. They have in addition conceptualized the global world as one in which political, economic, cultural and loving events become more and more impact. Smith and Baylis ed, 2005, pp. 8It is to be viewed non as a mere series of reforms giving free harness to trans bailiwick companies but as a radical programme to shape the entire, economic, political, legal and ideological landscape of dandyism Zuege, Leys et al (ed), 2006, pp. 1.Amiya Kumar Bagchi has provided a different interpretation of glo balization in his paper Womans Employment and well-being in a Globalising world as a deliberate concatenation and dominate of processes of returnion, exchange, information and services by the rich in rich nations of the world in collusion with the rich of most countries so as to plus their confess force play and wealth at the cost of the poor and discriminate everywhere. Bagchi in Kar (ed), 2005, pp. 276We whitethorn cite a few more definitions of globalization In words of Giddens, globalization refers to the intensification of worldwide social relations which contact lens distant localities in such a way that local happenings be shaped by events occurring many another(prenominal) an(prenominal) miles away and vice versa. Quoted in Smith and Baylis (ed), 2005, pp. 24Gilpin calls it The integration of the world- providence. Ibid.Scholte conceptualizes it in terms of De-territorialisation or the growth of supraterritorial relations amongst people. IbidDavid Harvey defines globalization in terms of time space compression. IbidAnthony Mcgrew defines globalisation as a historic process involving a fundamental shift or transformation in the spatial scale of homophile beings social shaping that links distant communities and expands the r all(prenominal) of power relations across regions and continents. Mcgrew in Smith and Baylis (ed), 2005, pp. 24In his pre gradientntial address to the 78th Annual Conference of the Indian Economic Association (28-30 Dec, 1995), Deepak Nayyar defined globalization as the expansion of economic activities across political boundaries of the nation states. More important, perhaps, it refers to a process of change magnitude economic integration and increment economic inter-dependence amid countries in the world providence. It is associated non only with an increasing cross-b order movement of inviolables, services, detonating device, engineering science, information and people overly with an organization of economi c activities which straddles national boundaries. Nayyar, 1996, pp. 1Held and Mcgrew have written, A adequate definition of globalization must capture each of these elements extensity (stretching), intensity, velocity and impact. And a satisfactory broadside of globalization must examine them thoroughly.By acknowledging these dimensions a mere precise definition of globalization can be offered. Accordingly, globalization can be thought of asa process (or descend of process) which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact generating transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of activity, interaction, and the exercise of power. Held and Mcgrew (ed), 1999, pp. 15-16.According to C. Sheela Reddy, globalisation is a complex, multidimensional, social, economic, cultural, technological and political process in which the mobility of capital, ideas, engineer ing science, organizations and people has acquired a growing global and transnational form. Advances in modern engineering (in particular information and communications technology), cheaper and quicker expect, trade, liberalization, cast up in financial flows and growth in the size and power of corporations ar its distinctive features. It is a bless(prenominal)ing to people winting from the new opportunities. At the alike(p) time others ar being left behind in poverty, efficaciously marginalized from the hopes that globalization holds out. Reddy, 2008, pp. 84Thus, from the above definitions, we may reiterate some important aspects of globalization like increasing interaction of social, economic, and political activity, relative deterritorialisation and de-nationalisation of the state, increasing movements of good and services, deregulation of national economy and so on.Anthony Mcgrew observes that globalization is characterized by a stretching of social, political and econom ic activities across political frontiers.the intensification, or the growing magnitude of interconnectedness in close every sphere of social existence.the accelerating pace of global interactions and processes as the evolution of world wide systems of transport and communication.the growing extensity, intensity and velocity of global interactions. Mcgrew in Steve and Baylis (ed), 2005, pp. 22PERIODISATION OF globalisationThe periodisation of the process of globalization has been a matter of intense postulate. Some regard it as a new phenomenon, while others regard it as the new chassis of an old phenomenon and thus old wine in a new bottle. Chandan Sengupta has written star opinion is that the concept of globalization dates back to the sail of discovery in the 15th century. According to Immanuel Wallerstein, the capitalist economic universe of globalization was fixed as early as in the16th century. Ronald Roberstson traced the historical temporal path of globalization to th e present complex structure of global system through five phases (i) the germinal (1400-1750) phase of dissolution of christendom an egress of nationalism in Europe, (ii) the incipient (1750-1875) phase of nation state and the sign phase of planetaryism and universalism in Europe, (iii) the take off (1875-1925) phase of conceptualization of the world as a single international society, global calendar, first world war, mass international migration and inclusion of non-Europeans in the international lodge of nation states (iv) the struggle for hegemony (1925-1969) phase of cold war, the emergence of legue of Nations and the UN, and the emergence of third base world, and (v) the uncertainty (1969-1992) phase of space exploration, recognition of global environmental job and global mass media, via space technology The roots of newly rising forces of globalization have been traced in specific economic and political developments in the late 1980s or early 1990s. Sengupta, 2001, pp . 3137TWO PERSPECTIVES OF THE CONCEPTUAL CONSTRUCTIONS OF GLOBALISATIONAccording to Chandan Sengupta, there atomic number 18 two broad contexts in which globalization has been defined. These two contexts argon not very far from one another. One is the economic context, the other that of non-economic which broadly includes socio-cultural, historical and political dimensions of globalization. Such a division of however, the author admits, in reality appear to be mendacious beca wont it is difficult to observe cultural dimensions of globalization totally independent of its material aspects. Scholars like Immanuel Wallerstein have resorted to the first perspective. While, Giddens, Robertson and Waters et. al, have tried to envision globalization through the prism of socio-cultural perspective. Ibid, pp. 3138.THE GLOBALISATION DEBATE AND THE THREE SCHOOLS OF viewAnthony, Mcgrew, David Held et. al have pointed out tether broad schools of thought in relation to the globalization debat e viz. the hyperglobalizers, the sceptics, and the transformationalists. In essence each of these schools may be said to represent a distinctive account. We will highlight briefly what these theses arFor the hyperglobalisers, such as Ohmae, contemporary globalization defines a new era in which peoples everywhere are progressively subject to the disciplines of the global marketplace. By contrast the sceptics, such as Hirst and Thompson, debate that globalization is essentially a myth which conceals the reality of an international economy increasingly surgical incisioned into common chord major regional blocs in which national presidencys endure very powerful. Finally, for the transformationalists, chief among them being Rosenau and Giddens, contemporary patterns of globalization are conceived as historically unprecedented such that states and societies across the globe are experiencing a process of profound change as they try to alter to a more interconnected but passing un certain world.interestingly more of these three schools map directly on to traditional political theory positions or worldviews. Held and Mcgrew, et. al, 1999, pp. 2Held and others have also summarized the three dominant tendencies of globalization debate in a tabular form as follows. Conceptualizing globalization three tendencyHyperglobalistsScepticsTransformationalistsWhats new?A global ageTrading blocs, weaker geogoverance than in earlier periodsHistorically unprecedented levels of global interconnectednessDominant featuresGlobal capitalism, global governance, global civil societyWorld less interdependent than in 1890sThick(intensive and extensive) globalizationPower of national governmentsDeclining or decayRein forced or enhancedReconstituted restructuredDriving forces of globalizationCapitalism and technologyStates and marketsCombined forces of modernityPattern of stratificationErosion of old hierarchies change magnitude marginalization of southNew architecture of world orde rsDominant subjectMcDonalds, Madonna etc.National interestTransformation of political clubConceptualization of globalizationAs a reordering of the framework of charitable actionAs internationalization in regionalisationAs reordering of interregional relations and actions at a distanceHistorical trajectoryGlobal purificationRegional blocs / clash of civilizationsIndeterminate global integration and fragmentation aestival argumentThe end of the nation-stateInternationalisation depends on state acquiescence and supportGlobalization transformation state power and world politicsIbid, pp. 10It is famed that when it comes to the sources of contention in the globalization debate, Held and others have mentioned five principal sources namely conceptualizationcausationperiodisationimpactsand the trajectories of globalization. Held and Mcgrew et al.,1999,p10 It is not the purpose of this paper to explore them all at length. So, we will limit our discussion to the prospects and challenges o f globalization only.PROSPECTS OF GLOBALISATIONGlobalisation is a double edged phenomenon. It has got prospects as well as challenges.As regards the prospects or post dimensions of globalization, Smith and Baylis have writtenThe pace of economic transformation is so great that it has created a new world politics. States are no longer ratiocinationd units and they cannot control their economies. The world economy is more interdependent than ever, wit trade and finances ever expanding.Communications have fundamentally revolutionized the way we deal with the rest of the world. We now live in a world where events in one location can be immediately observed in the other side of the world. Other side of the world. Electronic communications alter our notions of the social groups we work and live in. in that respect is now, more than ever before, a global goal, so that most urban areas resemble one another. The world shares a common culture, much of it emanating from Hollywood.The world is becoming more homogeneous. Differences amongst peoples are diminishing.Time and space look to be collapsing. Our old ideas of geographical space and of chronological time are undermined by the speed of modern communications and media.There is emerging a global polity, with transnational social and political movements and the beginnings of a transfer of trueness from the state to sub-state, transnational, and international bodies.A cosmopolitan culture is development. People are beginning to think globally and act locally.A risk culture is emerging with people realizing both that the main risks that face them are global (pollution and AIDS) and that states are unable to deal with the problems. Smith and Baylis, 2005, pp. 10-11C. Sheela Reddy wrote about the positive dimensions of globalizations as follows increase economic opportunities for countries to find markets in which their labour forces can compete effectively.Opportunities for countries with institutional and technica l infrastructure to attract enthronisations.Increasing consumer choice and falling prices for individuals roughly the world.Increasing protection of vulnerable groups, as communications technology facilitates global cognisance and actions by international solidarity and benignant arights movements.Better protection of the right to seek, receive and impact information through new communication tools including cellular phones, satellite television and the internet.The right of independence of association or freedom of assembly for which physical presence is no longer required overdue to new communication tools.Facilitating exchange of information on social policies and services, door to pedagogyal information and multicultural link with people of other cultures. Reddy, 2008, pp. 86 authentic writers argue that now national boundaries do not stand in way of process of an individual or a community give thanks to globalization. Men (and women) have gained access to the treasure of knowledge and culture which is the product of genius all over the world. Now local communities have the hazard to benefit from technology information, services, and markets available anywhere in the world. Finally, globalization has created an awareness regarding the global environment all over the world, and different nations have come to recognize global problems as a matter of their individual and corporal responsibility Gauba, 2005, pp. 173Another section of writers who strike a balance between the merits and demerits of globalization have noted that globalisation has raised per capita income in the world to three times since 1945 it has created awareness regarding environment, and congenial conditions for disarmament. It has brought the condition of subordinate groups to spotlight and inspired them to form their global organizations for their emancipation. It has also liberated them from the ideological mastery of their local communities and enabled them to fight for the ir legitimate rights. IbidAs regard the impact of globalization on women, Lene Sjorup has written women are ( ) involved in globalization at a number of interlocking, diverse and sometimes even contradictory levels. They may very well be the victims of one aspect of globalization, while they remain central actors in other aspects. Why, I ask myself, paint a picture of an overwhelming enemy confronting women, when a more detailed socio-religio-political analysis shows that women participate in complicated ways in global developments? Women surely are confronted with a number of obstacles at many levels. however, why use a mega-term like globalisation for describing the arch-enemy, instead of analyzing the many forms of oppression women face in spite of appearance the process of globalization, and including those from which we also benefit. Sjorup, 1997, pp. 97Thus, it would be wrong to treat globalization as a total anathema.As regards the upcoming of globalization, Stanley Fisch er (the first deputy Managing Director of IMF) commented to Closing Panel Discussion of IMF on Aug 26, 2000What about the future (of globalization)? Two cheering observations to begin withFirst, most ontogeny countries continue to liberalise trade disdain their complaints about the global trading system. We calculate an great power of trade barriers for individual IMF member countries. Almost uniformly, it shows that barriers to trade have been declining in the developing countries. They understand that unilateral trade liberalization is in their own interest, they are arguing for the advanced countries to open up not for themselves to close down and that is good news.Second, despite the recent crisis, capital accounts in almost all emerging market countries have remained open. And the two largest economies with relatively unsympathetic capital accounts. They understand that is the best way to go. They understand that is the best way to go. They are doing it cautiously and gr adually and they are right to do it that way. But the direction in which they are moving is clear. Policy-makers in almost all developing countries have no intention of reversing the process of capital account opening, despite their complaints over much of what is going on in the world, and despite their concerns over the recent crises. http // www.imf.org/external / np/ speeches/2000/082600.htm. visited on 21/03/10 at 8.30 p.mHe has also mentioned two forecasts.The first is conditional if we, and this heart policy makers of the advanced countries and the international institutions, manage the processes well and bring the developing countries into the process of globalization, it will continue, to the potential benefit of all and to the likely benefit of almost all. And, second, there will be surprises along the way. IbidCHALLENGES OF GLOBALISATIONThe rewards of globalization has not been uniform and equitable. It has benefitted only a certain category of states and people. M.A. Ommen has even called it a contrived phenomenon. He cites three reasons why globalization is not the culmination of a inwrought process Firstly, the world today is nigh governed by the G-7 countries (the USA, the UK, Japan, Canada, France, Germany, and Italy). The IMF, World Bank and the World Trade Organization (WTO), the personification of GATT, are neatly co-opted into the process of the economic management of the world.Second, science and technology are not a free pursuit. They are in captivity, so to say. The military powers (this includes the former Soviet Union) and transnational corporations (TNCS) have manipulated science technology for power and profit. This trend continues. The end of cold war has not materially altered the situation.Third, the United States of the States as Prof. Vernon points out, has been trying to create an international system in its own image has pioneered the so-called development political orientation to counter communism. Ommen, 1995, pp.75GL OBALISATION THE NEW AVATAR OF IMPERIALISMSome scholars are cover globalization as the new face of imperialism. They are of the view that imperialistic globalization is gradually spreading its wings to cast an abysmally benighted shadow world over. Thinkers like Ranen sen are very much searing of this contretemps. He writes Globalisation is paving the way for the US imperialism which is out to attempt the unipolar geopolitics. Militarization and more aggressive programmes are designed deep down framework of hegemenistic objectives of the CIS authorities .. chapiter has a long-term plan to destabilise the south and central Asian countries which have untapped hydrocarbon resource. Afghanistan has a immense resource of natural gas and Iraq has a essential oil industry. The US scheme of subversion in Afghanistan, Iraq and adjacent countries in nothing new. later becoming the hegemonistic ruler of world capitalist order, following the collapse of the USSR, Washington pressed P entagon more vigorously into service to dominate the oil and natural gas sectors in those countries.Sen in Kar (ed) 2005, pp. 93-94It is often claimed that globalization has led to the increasing interdependence. Now, the basic questions concern. Interdependence among and who are the beneficiaries? Samit Kar writes in the preface of GLOBALISATION iodine WORLD MANY VOICES pp. 12 Is this interdependence of world society real or tilted in favour of the richer nations?Neo-Marxists are also apprehensive of the wonky development brought by globalization Robert Cox and other neo-Marxists stress the abrasive hierarchical constitution of economic globalization. The global economic power is increasingly concentrated in the leading industrialised countries, including the United States, Japan, and the States of Western Europe. That convey the economic globalization will not benefit the impoverished raft of the Third World. Nor will it improve the living standards of the poor in the hig hly industralised countries. Jackson and Sorensen, 2003, pp. 217 Mahuya Chakrabarty writes in the same vein in the article Free foodstuff Globalisation Oil conflict and US aggression-This so-called free market globalization does not actually mean the spread of productive capital in the world but the accelerated accumulation and concentration of capital in the few imperialist countries, chiefly the US. Liberalization, privatization and deregulation the key factors given up with free market globalization .. have accelerated the outflow of social weather created by the people from the neo-colonies to the neo-imperialist countries. Here, the principal actor is the MNCs the multinational agencies like the IMF, World Bank and WTO. Chakrabarty in Kar (ed), 2005, pp. 108Ranen Sen has written Globalisation is a bid to restructure the power and politics of developed capitalist countries under the US hegemony. It is in a way to recolonization through the trinity of World Bank, IMF and WTO. Sen in Kar (ed), 2005, pp. 94 In the same tune Petras and Polychroniou, have pointed out the real nature and motives of these financial institutions These institutions were controlled by appointees of the respective imperial states and their function was to displace national markets and local producers and undermine popular social legislation in order to facilitate the entry of multinationals and the primacy of domestic export elites producing for the markets of the imperial counties. Petras and Polychroniou, 1997, pp. 2251GLOBALISATION AND out of true DEVELOPMENTThe process of globalization is highly uneven. Deepak Nayyar observes There are less than a dozen developing countries which are an integral part of globalization in the late twentieth century. Argentina, Brazil and Mexico in Latin America and Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand in Asia. These eleven countries accounted for about 30 percent of total exports from developing countrie s during the period 1970-1980. This share rose to 59 per cent in 1990 and 66 per cent in 1992. The same countries, excluding Korea, were also the main recipients of direct investment in the developing world accounting for 66 per cent of the fair(a) annual inflows during the period 1981-1991 this evidence suggests that globalization is most uneven in its spread and there is an exclusion in the process. Sub-Saharan Africa, West Asia, exchange Asia and South Asia are simply not in the picture, apart from many countries in Latin America, Asia and the Pacific which are left out altogether. Nayyar, 1996, pp. 15Nayyar also notes that the benefits of integration with the world economy, through globalization, would accrue only to those countries which have laid the requisite foundations for industrialization and development. This means investing in the development of human resources and the creation of a physical infrastructure. This means the acquisition of technological and managerial ca pabilities at a micro-level. This means the creation of institutions that would regulate, govern and facilitate the carrying into action of markets. In each of these pursuits, strategic forms of state intervention are essential. The countries which have not created these pre-conditions could end up globalizing prices without globalizing incomes. In the process, a narrow segment of their population may be integrated with the world economy, in terms of consumption patterns or living styles, but a large equipoise of their population may be marginalized even further. Ibid, pp. 16According to C. Sheela Reddy, the benefits of economic globalization have not accrued to the majority due to certain unseemly consequences likeThe increase of inequalities among regions and nations, within nations and among individualsThe continued growth of poverty.The increase of peoples photograph due to social risks such as unemployment and crime.The decrease in opportunities for regions, nations, communi ties and individuals to savour the benefits and receiptss provided by globalization. Thus the benefits of globalization are not uniformly enjoyed at present as many people still live in poverty and the result of alleviation efforts are uneven within and between the regions of the world. Reddy, 2008, pp. 87-88Hirst and Thompson have made a very harsh criticism of globalization. According to them, the most extreme versions of globalizations are a myth. In support of this claim, they have offered five arguments. First, the present internationalized economy is not unique in history. In some respects they say it is less open than the international economy between 1870 and 1914. Second, they find that genuinely transnational companies are relatively rare, most are national companies trading internationally. There is no trend towards the development of international companies. Third, there is no shift of finance and capital from the developed to the underdeveloped worlds. Direct investme nt is highly concentrated amongst the countries of the developed world. Fourth, the world-economy is not global, rather trade, investment, and financial flows are concentrated in and between three blocs Europe, North America, and Japan. Finally, they argue this group of three blocs could, if they co-ordinated policies, regulate global economic markets and forces quoted in Smith , Baylis, 2005, p. 11We will highlight here some other challenges of globalization First it must be borne in mind that competitory markets may be the best guarantee of efficiency, but not of equity. And markets are neither the first not the last word in human development. There was a time when many activities and goods that are crucial to human development were provided outside the market but these are now being squeezed by the pressure of global competition. The policy of structural adjustment which was forced on most of the third world countries has reduced the amount of government expenses in health, em ployment as well as in education sector, subsequently making the people of the third world the victim of globalization.Second, unequal distributionWhen the market goes too far in dominating social and political outcome, the opportunities and reward of globalization spread unequally and inequitably . concentrating power and values in a select group of people, nations and corporations, marginalizing the others. When the market goes our of hand, the imbalance grows up, as in the financial crisis in East Asia and its worldwide implications newspaper clipping global output by estimated 2 trillion dollar in 1998-2000.Since 1980s many countries have captured the opportunities of economic and technological globalization. Other than the industrial countries, the countries like India, Poland, Turkey, Chile are attracting foreign investment and taking advantage of technological progress. At the other extreme there any many countries, not all benefited from expanding markets and advancing te chnology Madagascar, sub-Saharan countries among others.Third, Inequality within and between countriesJayati Gosh has written in her article Imperialist Globalisation and the political economy of South Asia The recent process of imperialist globalization has been attach by greatly increased disparities, both within countries and between countries. Ghosh in Kar (ed.), 2005, pp. 260.Inequality has been rising in many countries since the early 1980s In China, disparities are widening between the export oriented region of the edge and the interior. The human poverty index is just under 20% in coastal provinces, but more than 50% inland Guijhou.Inequality between the countries has also been increasing. Noteworthy that the income gap between the richest and the poorest one-fifth in the world was just 31 in 1820. Today, the gap in one word is gargantuan. Let us look at the following statistics include in UNDP 1999 ReportYear Income Gap Ratio1820 311870 711913 1111960 3011990 6011997 7 41Again at the turn of the 21 century, the richest 20% of the worlds population had 86% of world GDP. The bottom fifth had 1% 82% of world export markets the bottom fifth had 1%

Preventing Effects of Global Warming

Preventing Effects of Global WarmingRachel TomsettHow shag we as a species prevent the continued effects of global heating system and to what extent has permanent damage already occurred?Global warming, in whatso forever case known as temper deviate, describes the hike temperature of the atmosphere and ocean. Throughout only of earths tale climate has been a very fluctuate factor (for example the scrap age). However if you get down into account how often organisms on earth contrive evolved into their st open habitats and how each hotshot depends on their habitats to survive, fluctuations depart be much(prenominal) much woundful now, especially to humanity and the animals humanity relies on e.g. H nonpareilybees. The principal(prenominal) ca utilisation of global warming is thought to be the result of humanities actions, for example Co2 emissions (from cars and early(a) transport) interfering with the O-zone layer ca employ, Deforestation in rainforests (from wor kers creating space for kine grazing) and Farming ( numerous fertilizers contain nitrous oxide which is harmful to the O-zone layer, and sheep/cattle produce large tots of methane which is alike a harmful babys room chemical). In the century atmospheric temperature has risen 1- F and Oceanic temperature 0.18-F (1). Whereas this may non possess an immediate effect in the upcoming this allow cause extreme weather conditions such as droughts, wildfire and mussiness deluge/intense rainstorms. Although to an extent we dismiss already square up this source to happen, for example if we look into the statistics of how many acres of land per year atomic way out 18 finished by wildfire (see figure 1) we can clearly see an draw in the much(prenominal) young years as Co2 emissions and temperature overly increase( see fig. 2). This would make sense as dryer conditions make an easier/ fast path for fire to spread. However looking into the source of figure one we can see up c atchd statistics which indicate a drop in the fargon of wildfires after this graph was make, although this could be receivable to human intervention and delivery orders.As well as being a mass inconvenience oneself for humanity these effects could also be very damaging to another(prenominal) species on earth, this is why scientists ar foc apply on looking into/exploring ersatz methods to try and lessen the rate of climate change. If conditions were to change too much or too rapidly many species would not be able to survive or fit into this new climate and in congener we may see a mass bottle neck in species, or in the most extreme cases extinction. On the other mass we may see a germitative species flourish and grow in this new environment which may lead to a tip/ give away in an eco-system which would cause other species to suffer. Not to mention if climate change carries on at the rate its climbing earth may soon be inhospitable to humanity, our future generations.Alt hough scientists know global warming is irreversible there be still certain methods humanity can adapt to lessen the rate. For example scientists realise been looking into alternate nix to try and encourage much than throng to switch from fossil fuelled null to a more eco-friendly and renewable dexterity sources. 21.3 billion tons of carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide) argon produced by the burning of fossil fuels per year (2), which obviously contributes to the tautness of CO2 in the atmosphere and in turn further restoration the O-zone layer but these new energy sources use natural methods which ar easily replenished such as solar energy, go energy and hydro energy which do not produce any harmful emissions. This is obviously a capacious solution to lessen the rate of climate change if more people started using these methods of energy we could cut emissions down by the citizenry and slow the rate of Global warming a considerable amount. These solutions ar relevant in t he fact that they dont release greenhouse gases and harness natural force play without any mass destruction and harm to the environment and habitat almost it.However methods such as these are expensive and arent as cost effective as non-renewable sources, so stintingally it is not the best choice, especially for poorer countries. On the other present because non-renewable sources are coming close to running out (unless new sources/mines are found), the price for nonrenewable energy is beginning to climb higher(prenominal) and higher (due to less availability and more demand), which in turn (and partly due to advancing technology) basic renewable energy sources are becoming cheaper and more obtainable, for instance towns people may choose to have a certain number of solar bloodsheds on their roof due to the declining prices (see fig 4). In just one year the price for 16 solar panels to be installed has gone from 15000 to 7500 which is a 50% saving (see Fig. 3). However methods o n a larger scale, for example wind utmostms, (to generate a substantial amount of energy) would need anywhere between a dozen or hundreds (see fig. 5). Which obviously, again, would cost a great amount and not many countries could afford them tether to more economical problems especially since sometimes they come with instillation prices and taxes. genius environmental problem that would face the panels is in countries like the UK. The weather is passing variable and sunlight is at its most intense in pass when less energy is needed, say for heating because the weather is warmer and for excitation because the days are recollectiveer in spend. The ratio between summer and winter in wanders is unfavorable. However other countries like France and USA have a much more constant input. (3).A social/economic problem with solar panels is that if one would want to produce energy on a larger scale the panels would need to be in a very large place with access to sunlight. These are cal led Photovoltaic power stations (or solar farms). The placing also contributes to how much power these panels generate the tip of the location, the axis in which the panel is mounted on, hemisphere, ect. This of course will take up large amounts of field space that may have been previously used for farming (see fig 6) or recreation. In which case the farmer of company could see a loss in profit from the absent land (as farming cant be done nether these panels unlike wind farms) and the civilians could argue that the land is being wasted. As far as the panels effect on human life, past the implications, are next to none. However, other wildlife which may have resided in the open space onwards it became a solar farm will have had their habitat destroyed and would have had to migrate somewhere else, which would cause a disturbance to the wildlife. other implication of renewable energy is a social issue found around Wind farms, many people oppose having wind farms/ turbines around their homes/towns. Theresa Groth and Christine Vogt have done a study (4) in which they mailed a questionnaire to different town and counties to gather an root word of what the general opinion is on Wind turbines and their usefulness, many responded to the questionnaire by saying turbine placement near their habitation increased uncertainty and concern of them, next to no one rivet on the positive outcomes like clean energy/no emissions. Others train that the visual appearance of the turbines ruins the landscape. As for the actual risk to humans from these wind farms a report was published in 2007 by the U.S. National seek Council (5),it come to an endd that although low-frequency vibrations are not well understood in their intercourse/effect on humans, and that of course sensitivity to the vibrations varies greatly among people, wind turbines would not be a major concern/threat to people beyond a half-mile. Of course there are still people/scientists who disagree but furth er research need to be done on Humans and their sensitivity to low frequency vibrations/noise. And for the effect on other living organisms beside humans setting animals such as cattle and grounded wildlife (deer/badgers) do not seem to mind the turbines and carry on with grazing/search (see fig. 6). However, flying wildlife e.g. birds and bats seem to have a higher mortality rate rate around areas with wind turbines, presumably due to flying into the twist or spinning blades. However according to studies and surveys birds have the ability to regain the wind turbines and anyway more research shows wind turbines have not foreshortend bird populations so much so that there will be a noticeable effect (unbalance in the food orbit/eco system.).To get a further understanding of how the climate is changing scientists use a number of methods to obtain selective information they can evaluate and match for more answers. For example the US Global Change Research create by mental act ( USGCRP) publishes a National Climate Assessment which looks into how climate affects different regions of the US. It also observes the long/short term changes in climate and the ozone layer using satellites and monitoring icecaps melting and sea levels. It also aids scientists in predicting any future changes to the environment and if we are at risk of being compromising to natural disasters. For example by studying these satellites that collect all this data scientists can observe change in conditions such as the rising of waters upstream to a village in Bangladesh. The satellite will take pictures from space and use their altimeter to measure the distance between itself and the river erupt revealing the change in height of upstream locations and seeing as the data is nearly instant allows scientists to look at potential flooding risks downstream closer to the village ect. (6).This recent method of using innovational technology is much more reliable and quicker than using a grou nd based network, taking into account how the ground network doesnt extend as far upstream as the satellite and information isnt as instant as the satellite. An example of a ground based network is the Flash Flood Early Warning transcription which was introduced in 2013 to give warnings to locals close to an upcoming flash flood. However this function only provided a small amount of warning time (3 hours) which is a very small amount of time compared to that the satellite can provide. Although this is not a prevention method it is the best scientists can do without interfering with the local towns or river path. Which would have an effect on the locals and their crops as the water source would either be diverted or be behind flooding barriers.An alternative method to renewable energy and a disaster forecast is the reconstruction of forests. Trees are responsible for absorbing cytosine Dioxide and converting it to Oxygen which then is released back into the atmosphere. However, i n these past couple of decades disforestation has become a major industry and 12-15 million hectares of forest are lost each year(7).There are a number of reasons for this making space for cattle farming, harvesting timber for fuel and smuggled logging. This isnt just harmful for our atmosphere but carve up of animals are in danger or threatened because of their habitat being destroyed. So as an alternate method I think that scientists should look into claiming more forest as protected/private land and look into the replantation of forests where ever possible. Not to mention looking into cracking down on illegal activities in the forests (logging/hunting) and enforcing punishment. Although this may create a social implication, more so in tropical isolated regions, as some small villages guess certain animal skin to be medicine and use the wood for heat and fuel, also only surviving on cattle and crops in the spaces where trees used to grow. Perhaps another suggestion would be r oof go on gardens in cities, which will create space for plants to photosynthesise and exchange carbon dioxide for more oxygen. Although the building would have to approve planning permission and would take a certain amount of time to grow, and would need a lot of burster I think it would be an interesting method to try and reduce the carbon concentration in the atmosphere, interfering with the O-zone layer.Another alternate method that would greatly help with cutting humanities carbon emissions is if more people purchased and used electric cars. Electric cars do not produce tailpipe emissions and are much more eco-friendly, they have been introduced before but never in truth caught on as technology was lacking and there were limited charging places. correct now the battery life does not last as long as say a petrol fuelled car and the charging time takes so much longer than a simple refuel, but if scientists were to look into and taste more with the concept and perhaps have a charging station at every petrol station people might begin to adapt to the idea and in turn lessen their carbon emissions. Although battery powered cars are considerably more expensive than the usual petrol/ diesel ones, battery prices are beginning to decline, much like the solar panel prices. So maybe in the future it will catch on just as well as the panels.Bibliography1)http//ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/critical-issues-sea-temperature-rise/ Sea Temperature Rise-National Geographic- undiagnosed author-Unknown date published- Date used 20/3/152) http//www.environmentlaw.org.uk/rte.asp?id=192 Human activities-Environment Law-Unknown author- Unknown date published- Date used 20/3/153) (Book) spell and The environment-Cambridge Social Biology Topics-Alan Cornwell-First published in 1983-date used 20/3/15Because this book is quite old I cant find much information or the book its self-there for Im beginning to question its reliability mainly for the fact its 32 years old and a lot of advancement has been made in the past thirty years and climate and attitudes have also changed. However after lots of searching I found that the author was Head of the Science Division at Bulmershe College of Higher Education in Reading, Berkshire. It was published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge which leads me to believe that even though it is old it is accurate of its time and was effectual and maybe still is valid today, as the author clearly had scientific knowledge and access to studies and information. It has lots of picture evidence as sources to back up their points and is very in depth, including diagrams of cycles and chemical equations of relevant reactions. Whilst researching and validating a table they had used in the Air pollutant section (page 37) Deaths Due to Urban Smog I opinionated to research the numbers and dates to see if they were similar. flavour at figures it is clear to see they were rounded to the nearest thousand (Place L ondon) and again London had many more deaths than New York or Belgium, which supported the table in the book. Over all I can conclude that this is quite a reliable source.4) http//www. learningdirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148113004370 Rural wind farm development Social, environmental and economic features important to local residents-Science Direct-Theresa M. Grotha and Christine A. Vogtb- Date Published 23/9/13 Date used 20/3/155) http//books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11935page=158 Environmental Impacts of Wind-Energy Projects (2007) (4 Impacts of Wind-Energy nurture on Humans)-National academic press- Us Research Council-Date published 2007- Date used 20/3/15I believe this to be a very reliable sauce for my discussion. It is a legal history put together by scientists from the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the implant of Medicine and is sponsored by the Executive Office of the President. It is a thorough document recording ind ividuals research and findings. Each department is trussed to global warming in some way, the sciences exploring how climate is changing, engineering exploring slipway to combat the speed of climate change and professors of medicine dealing with those touched by climate change, eg. Pollution sickness and short term treatments. Looking into some of the individual members who participated I can clearly see a range of people from different states which shows that their findings arent exclusive to just one area and arent biased from one person but have a range of opinions and points to discuss . The purpose of this report is to give an idea of the impact wind turbines have on the surrounding environment, in great detail. In checking the facts of the paper I came across this fact In recent years, the growth of capacity to generate electricity from wind energy has been rapid, increase from almost none in 1980 to 11,603 megawatts (MW) in 2006 in the United States and about 60,000 MW in 2006 globally after a thorough search many other websites seemed to also have this data so I conclude that is a reliable source.6) http//www.globalchange.gov/news/preparing-for-floods-satellite-data-servir-bangladesh preparing for Floods with Satellite Data SERVIR in Bangladesh- globalchange.gov-Unknown author- 16/3/15 published- date used 20/3/157) http//wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/about_forests/deforestation/ Deforestation-WWF-Unknown author-Unknown date published-Date used 20/3/15